JORDAN ROYALTY AUTOGRAPH Princess Haya bint Al Hussein SIGNED PHOTO OLYMPICS

Description: Princess Haya bint Al Hussein AT THE OLYMPICS SIGNED PHOTO MEASURING 5X7 INCHES Princess Haya bint Al Hussein is the daughter of King Hussein of Jordan and his third wife Queen Alia, and the half-sister of King Abdullah II. She is a graduate of the University of Oxford in England and an accomplished equestrian. Princess Haya bint Al Hussein (Arabic: الأميرة هيا بنت الحسين; born 3 May 1974) is the daughter of King Hussein of Jordan and his third wife Queen Alia, and the half-sister of King Abdullah II. She is a graduate of the University of Oxford in England and an accomplished equestrian. She represented Jordan at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia and is the two-term President of the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). In 2004, Princess Haya became the second official wife of the ruler of the Emirate of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum. In 2019, they divorced and Princess Haya left Dubai with the two children of the marriage to reside in the United Kingdom. Legal proceedings between Princess Haya and Sheikh Mohammed before the High Court over custody of their children attracted considerable media attention. On 5 March 2020, a British court ruled that on the balance of probabilities, Sheikh Mohammed, the absolute ruler of Dubai and the prime minister of the UAE, had abducted two of his daughters, Shamsa and Latifa, and had threatened Haya.[1] Early life and education King Hussein and Queen Alia with their children Prince Ali and Princess Haya, 1976Princess Haya was born in Amman, the capital of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the daughter of King Hussein and his third wife, Queen Alia. She has a younger brother, Prince Ali bin Hussein born on 23 December 1975, and older sister, Abir Muhaisen (born 1973), the latter of whom was adopted by Haya's parents after her biological mother was killed by a plane crash at their Palestinian refugee camp in Amman. In 1977, when Haya was 3 years old, her mother died in a helicopter crash. Her father died from complications related to non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in 1999, leaving the crown to her half-brother, King Abdullah II. She was educated in the United Kingdom, where in 1985, she attended Badminton School in Bristol, and later the Bryanston School in Dorset. From 1993 to 1995, she was enrolled at St Hilda's College, Oxford University, from which she graduated with a BA honours degree in philosophy, politics, and economics (PPE).[2][3][4] Sports careerPrincess Haya began horse riding internationally when she was 13.[5] In 1992, she took the bronze medal in individual Jumping at the seventh Pan Arab Games in Damascus, Syria, and in 1993 was named Jordan's athlete of the year.[5] Princess Haya was the first woman to represent her native Jordan in international equestrian sport and the only woman to win a medal in the Pan-Arab Equestrian Games.[6] Having trained for several years in Ireland and Germany,[5] she qualified for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia representing Jordan in show jumping, where she was also her country's flag bearer.[7] In 2007, Princess Haya became a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and in 2010 became an appointee to the IOC's International Relations Committee, and has also served on the IOC Athletes' and Culture and Olympic Education Commissions.[5] Haya's horse racing silk: Green, sleeves chevroned green and black, green cap.On 7 June 2008, New Approach, a three-year-old colt owned by Princess Haya, trained in Ireland by Jim Bolger and ridden by Kevin Manning, won the Derby Stakes. On 25 October 2008, her three-year-old colt, Raven's Pass, won the $5 million Breeders' Cup Classic. After being named the European champion 2-year-old in 2007 and winning the 2008 Epsom Derby, New Approach was retired at the end of the 2008 racing season.[8] In 2009, due to her contribution to the equine world, she was made the first Patron of Retraining of Racehorses.[9] Princess Haya serves as president of the International Jordanian Athletes Cultural Association, which she founded to provide athletes with needed national incentive and support.[5] International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) Princess Haya (right) congratulating FEI 2012 award winner Courtney King-DyePrincess Haya participated in the 2002 FEI World Equestrian Games at Jerez de la Frontera in Spain,[7] and represented Jordan at the FEI General Assembly on several occasions.[5] She was elected president of the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) in 2006 for an initial four-year term in the FEI's first contested presidential race.[10] In 2010, she became the first sitting FEI president to be challenged in a re-election bid.[10] She succeeded, however, in winning a second and final four-year term, receiving 75 percent of the vote to soundly defeat her two European rivals.[11] Nonetheless, during the FEI's campaign to eliminate doping and horse abuse in equestrian sport, Princess Haya's husband and stepson were both convicted by the FEI in 2009 for serious doping violations. Princess Haya ceded presidential powers to a senior colleague for the FEI disciplinary processes on the matter. She later complained that the issue would be used to "injure and damage the reputations of myself and my family".[12] Princess Haya frequently appeared, along with her husband, at Royal Ascot, the Epsom Derby and other highlights of the English equestrian calendar; both are reported to be friendly with Queen Elizabeth II.[13] CharityPrincess Haya is the first Arab and first woman to become Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations World Food Programme and UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon appointed her a UN Messenger of Peace in 2007.[14] She founded Tkiyet Um Ali (TUA), the first Arab NGO dedicated to overcoming local hunger, in her native Jordan, which provides food assistance and employment opportunities to thousands of poor families. In November 2012, Tkiyet Um Ali announced a campaign to quadruple the number of its beneficiaries to reach 20,000 families living under the food poverty line, aiming to meet the UN Millennium Development Goals on hunger by 2015. Tkiyet Um Ali (TUA) is intended to expand to reach all Jordanian families with insufficient income to meet basic food needs. In addition, Dar Abu Abdullah (DAA) and TUA announced a strategic partnership[15] for a parallel jobs creation program to help TUA beneficiaries become more self-sufficient.[16] Princess Haya chaired Dubai's International Humanitarian City which is the world's largest operational center for the delivery of aid, both in emergencies and for long-term development. Ten UN agencies and nearly 40 non-government organizations are members of the IHC which has supported relief efforts all over the globe, including for Syrian refugees affected by civil war, for East Africans during the last drought,[which?] in Pakistan during the 2009 floods, and to Afghanistan and Yemen. The IHC has also hosted UN and NGO staff evacuated during emergencies and civil unrest. She was an ambassador for the World Food Programme from 2005 to 2007,[17] and then appointed a UN Messenger of Peace in July 2007 by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. She was a founding member of former Secretary-General Kofi Annan's Global Humanitarian Forum based in Geneva, and writes editorials and articles on hunger, nutrition and the UN Sustainable Development Goals which have appeared in the London Times, Le Figaro, the Globe and Mail, and La Repubblica. In August 2012, she supported the 2012 United Nations' World Humanitarian Day in Dubai.[18] Under her patronage, Dubai twice hosted the Global Meeting of the World Food Programme and is increasingly a center for United Nations and regional meetings on development and humanitarian aid. Relief and charitable programmes in Jordan also benefitted from the support of the princess's consort, Sheikh Mohammed, specifically the King Hussein Cancer Foundation, the Haya Cultural Centre and the 'Reading Nation' campaign.[19] Princess Haya has followed in her father's footsteps in giving her support to the charitable foundation "Anything is possible", set up in the name of King Hussein to advance education for girls, including the project "The Maiden Factor", established by sailor Tracy Edwards with the relaunch of her yacht Maiden in 2018.[20][non-primary source needed][21] She is a member of the Honorary Board of the International Paralympic Committee.[22] Personal lifeOn 10 April 2004, Princess Haya married Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE and Ruler of Dubai, as his second and junior wife. The marriage ceremony was held at al-Baraka Palace in Amman.[23][24] On 2 December 2007 in Dubai, Princess Haya gave birth to her first child, Sheikha Al Jalila bint Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum.[25] The baby's birth coincided with the United Arab Emirates' 36th celebration of its National Day, on 2 December.[26] On 7 January 2012, she gave birth to her second child, Sheikh Zayed bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum.[27] She resides in a home in Kensington Palace Gardens. As an envoy of the Embassy of Jordan, she is able to remain in the UK and is granted diplomatic immunity and protection under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.[28] Divorce and court proceedingsOn 7 February 2019, Sheikh Mohammed divorced Princess Haya under Sharia law, though she was not informed at the time. The date was the twentieth anniversary of the death of her father, King Hussein of Jordan.[29] By early 2019, Princess Haya had become suspicious of the transportation of two of her stepdaughters, Sheikha Shamsa and Sheikha Latifa, back to the United Arab Emirates,[30] and Sheikh Mohammed learned she had an affair with her British bodyguard.[31][32] On 15 April 2019, Princess Haya left Dubai with her children Sheikha Jalila and Sheikh Zayed to reside in the United Kingdom. The topic attracted immense media coverage all over the world.[33] She was reported to have applied for asylum in Germany, and the British newspaper The Times reported that she had been escorted by a German diplomat to Germany. The Times reported that Sheikh Mohammed allegedly posted a poem on Instagram, in Arabic and English, accusing his wife of treachery and betrayal and also threatening her.[33][34][35][36][37] Wardship and early proceedingsOn 14 May 2019, Sheikh Mohammed commenced proceedings in England and Wales under the inherent jurisdiction of the High Court of Justice seeking orders for the children to be returned to the Emirate of Dubai.[38][39][40] On 30 July 2019 at the High Court, Princess Haya issued applications for the children to be made Wards of Court, and for a forced marriage protection order (FMPO) with respect to Sheikha Jalila, and for a non-molestation order for her own protection.[41][40] All of the orders were granted. On 11 December 2019, in the High Court of Justice Family Division, Royal Courts of Justice, London, the Rt Hon Sir Andrew McFarlane, President of the Family Division, said he would "evaluate the risk of either or both of the children being removed from their mother's care and taken to Dubai against her will".[40] Findings of the High CourtOn 5 March 2020, the High Court found, on the balance of probabilities, that Sheikh Mohammed had orchestrated the abductions of two of his other children.[42] The judge accepted the allegations that in 2000 Mohammed ordered the unlawful abduction of his daughter Sheikha Shamsa from the United Kingdom to Dubai.[30] On two occasions, in 2002 and 2018, Mohammed ordered and orchestrated the forcible return of his daughter Sheikha Latifa to the family home in Dubai. In 2002, the return was from the border of Dubai with Oman, and in 2018 it was by an armed commando assault at sea near the coast of India.[30] Sheikha Shamsa and Sheikha Latifa were, following their return to the custody of their father's family, allegedly deprived of their liberty. The judge also found allegations of physical abuse amounting to torture, previously made by Sheikha Latifa in a video, to be credible.[30] The High Court found that Princess Haya took $8.8 million (£6.7 million) from the bank accounts of one of her children, and paid that money to her security staff to keep her affair with her bodyguard secret.[31][32] The High Court also accepted that Sheikh Mohammed had conducted a campaign, by various means, with the aim of harassing, intimidating or otherwise putting Princess Haya in great fear from the end of 2018.[30] Princess Haya was subjected to intimidation and abuse, including having a gun placed on her pillow twice and threats to be taken to a remote prison.[30] Early in the court proceedings, Sir Andrew McFarlane described the sheikh as "a man of international prominence whose position and international standing justify a high level of respect". In March, writers for The Guardian reflected upon that contextualisation, commenting: "After McFarlane's explosive conclusions, it is unclear whether his flattering description still holds."[43] On 6 October 2021, the High Court found that agents of Sheikh Mohammed used the Pegasus spyware to hack the phones of Princess Haya, her solicitors, a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020 "with the express or implied authority" of the sheikh. The spyware's developer, NSO Group, itself had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hacking, of which Sheikh Mohammed denied knowledge. The judgment referred to the hacking as "serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law", "in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights", "interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice" and "abuse of power" by a head of state. It was also revealed that Sheikh Mohammed attempted to purchase a property near to Princess Haya's home, that "if anyone chose to use it, it is in prime position for direct or electronic surveillance". Princess Haya told the court: "It feels as if I am being stalked, that there is literally nowhere for me to go to be safe from [Sheikh Mohammed], or those acting in his interests. It is hugely oppressive."[44] On 21 December 2021, Princess Haya was granted full custody of her children. The High Court ordered Sheikh Mohammed to pay a lump sum settlement of £251.5 million to Princess Haya in addition to £5.6 million-a-year for each of their two children and an upfront payment of £290 million as guarantee.[45] The sheikh also removed an online poem, titled "You lived, You Died", which had been perceived as a threat by Princess Haya.[45] In March 2022, the High Court declared that Princess Haya had been a victim of "domestic abuse", and she was announced as the sole person in charge of the children's schooling and medical care.[46] Sir Andrew McFarlane said Sheikh Mohammed "consistently displayed coercive and controlling behaviour" against family members who went against his will.[47] Honours and awardsHonoursNational Jordan: Grand Cordon with Brilliants of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance, Jordan, 30 January 2006.Foreign France: Officer of the Legion of Honour, France, 26 September 2014.[48]Awards2015 Hunger Hero Award, United Nations World Food Programme, Davos, Switzerland, 22 January 2015.[49] of the ruler of Dubai, applied for a protection order from forced marriage during a hearing in a court in London today, Tuesday (July 30, 2019), related to the interests of their two children.. Princess Haya (45 years old), wife of the ruler of the Emirate of Dubai and Prime Minister of the Emirates, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (70 years old), applied for protection and requested not to be subjected to abuse and custody of their two children, according to the Supreme Court.. Princess Haya bint Al Hussein, who fled to Britain earlier this year, began a legal battle to obtain custody of her two children.. Princess Haya is the sixth wife of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid, and the half-sister of Jordanian King Abdullah II. There were unconfirmed reports that she fled to Britain via Germany, but the German authorities did not confirm thi Amman (English: /əˈmɑːn/; Arabic: عَمَّان, ʿAmmān pronounced [ʕamːaːn])[5][6] is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center.[7] With a population of 4,061,150 as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant region, the fifth-largest city in the Arab world, and the tenth-largest metropolitan area in the Middle East.[8] The earliest evidence of settlement in Amman dates to the 8th millennium BC, in a Neolithic site known as 'Ain Ghazal, where the world's oldest statues of the human form have been unearthed. The city was known as Rabat Aman and served as the capital of the Ammonite Kingdom, centered in the Amman Citadel, in the second millennium BC. In the 3rd century BC, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, rebuilt the city and renamed it "Philadelphia", making it a regional center of Hellenistic culture. Under Roman rule, Philadelphia was one of the ten Greco-Roman cities of the Decapolis and later as part of Arabia Petraea province, during which the Roman Theater and other landmarks were built. The Rashidun Caliphate conquered the city from the Byzantines in the 7th century AD, and recalled it Amman. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, the city alternated between periods of devastation and abandonment and periods of relative prosperity as the center of the Balqa region. Amman was largely abandoned from the 15th century until 1878, when Ottoman authorities began settling Circassians there. After the Ottoman Empire inaugurated the Hejaz railway station in 1904, Amman became connected to other nearby cities, and the then mainly Circassian village witnessed growth that led to the establishment of its first municipal council in 1909.[9] The city witnessed rapid growth after its designation as Transjordan's capital in 1921, receiving migrations from different Jordanian and Levantine cities, and later several successive waves of refugees: Palestinians in 1948 and 1967; Iraqis in 1990 and 2003; and Syrians since 2011. It was initially built on seven hills, but now spans over 19 hills combining 22 areas,[9] which are administered by the Greater Amman Municipality.[10] Areas of Amman have gained their names from either the hills (jabal) or the valleys (wadi) they occupy, such as Jabal al-Luweibdeh and Wadi Abdoun.[9] East Amman is predominantly filled with historic sites that frequently host cultural activities, while West Amman is more modern and serves as the economic center of the city.[11] Approximately one million visitors arrived in Amman in 2018, which made it the 89th most-visited city in the world and the 12th most-visited Arab city. Amman has a relatively fast growing economy[12] and it is ranked as a Beta− global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[13] Moreover, it was named one of the Middle East and North Africa's best cities according to economic, labor, environmental, and socio-cultural factors.[14] The city is among the most popular locations in the Arab world for multinational corporations to set up their regional offices, alongside Doha and only behind Dubai.[15] The city is served by the Amman Bus and the Amman Bus Rapid Transit public transportation systems. Another BRT system under-construction will connect the city to nearby Zarqa. EtymologyAmman derives its name from the ancient people of the Ammonites, whose capital the city had been since the 13th century BC. The Ammonites named it Rabat ʿAmmān (𐤓𐤁𐤕 𐤏𐤌𐤍),[5] with the term Rabat meaning the "Capital" or the "King's Quarters". In the Hebrew Bible, the town is referred to as Rabbaṯ Bənē ʿAmmōn (רַבַּת בְּנֵי עַמּוֹן) or simply Rabbā (רַבָּה),[16] and it appears in English translations as "Rabbath Ammon". Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom who reigned from 283 to 246 BC, renamed the city "Philadelphia" (Ancient Greek: Φιλαδέλφεια; literally: "brotherly love"), after himself, after occupying it.[17] By the Islamic era, the Rashidun Caliphate restored its ancient semitic name and called it Amman in the 7th century AD.[18] HistorySee also: Timeline of AmmanNeolithic periodMain article: ʿAin Ghazal The ʿAin Ghazal statues are considered to be the oldest large-scale human statues ever found.[19]The Neolithic site of ʿAin Ghazal today lies in the outskirts of Amman. At its height, around 7000 BC (9000 years ago), it had an area of 15 hectares (37 acres) and was inhabited by ca. 3000 people (four to five times the population of contemporary Jericho). At that time, the site was a typical aceramic Neolithic village. Its houses were rectangular mud-bricked buildings that included a main square living room, whose walls were made up of lime plaster.[20] The site was discovered in 1974 as construction workers were working on a road crossing the area. By 1982, when the excavations started, around 600 meters (2,000 feet) of road ran through the site. Despite the damage brought by urban expansion, the remains of ʿAin Ghazal provided a wealth of information.[21] ʿAin Ghazal is well known for a set of small human statues found in 1983, when local archeologists stumbled upon the edge of a large pit containing them.[22] These statues are human figures made with white plaster, with painted eyes. Thirty-two figures were found in two caches, fifteen of them full figures, fifteen busts, and two fragmentary heads. Three of the busts depicted two-headed characters, the significance of which is not clear.[21] Iron Age: the AmmonitesMain article: Ammon Rujm Al-Malfouf, Ammonite watch tower built around 1000 BCIn the 13th century BC, Amman was the capital of the Ammonite Kingdom, and became known as "Rabat Amman". Rabat Amman provided several natural resources to the region, including sandstone and limestone, along with a productive agricultural sector that made it a vital location along the King's Highway, the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave the Ammonites considerable revenue.[23] Milcom is named in the Hebrew Bible as the national god of Rabat Amman. Another ancient deity, Moloch, usually associated with the use of children as offerings, is also mentioned in the Bible as a god of the Ammonites, but this is probably a mistake for Milcom. However, excavations by archeologists near Amman Civil Airport uncovered a temple, which included an altar containing many human bone fragments. The bones showed evidence of burning, which led to the assumption that the altar functioned as a pyre and used for human sacrifice.[24][25] Amman is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible. According to the biblical narrative, the Ammonite king Hanun allied with Hadadezer, king of Aram-Zobah, against the United Kingdom of Israel. During the war, Joab, the captain of King David's army, laid siege to Rabbah, Hanun's royal capital, and destroyed it (2 Samuel 12:26–28, 1 Chronicles 20:1–2). David took a great quantity of plunder from the city, including the king's crown, and brought it to his capital, Jerusalem (2 Samuel 12:29–31). Hanun's brother, Shobi, was made king in his place, and became a loyal vassal of David (2 Samuel 17:27). Hundreds of years later, the prophet Jeremiah foresaw the coming destruction and final desolation of the city (Jeremiah 49:2).[26][27] Several Ammonite ruins across Amman exist, such as Rujm Al-Malfouf and some parts of the Amman Citadel. The ruins of Rujm Al-Malfouf consist of a stone watchtower used to ensure the protection of their capital and several store rooms to the east.[28][29] The city was later conquered by the Assyrians, followed by the Babylonians and the Achaemenid Persians.[30] Classical period Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel (Jabal Al-Qalaa)Conquest of the Middle East and Central Asia by Alexander the Great firmly consolidated the influence of Hellenistic culture.[30] The Greeks founded new cities in the area of modern-day Jordan, including Umm Qays, Jerash and Amman. Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt, who occupied and rebuilt the city, named it "Philadelphia" (Ancient Greek: Φιλαδέλφεια), evoking "brotherly love" in Greek. The name was given as an adulation to his own nickname, Philadelphus.[31] One of the most original monuments in Jordan, and perhaps in the Hellenistic period in the Near East, is the village of Iraq al-Amir in the valley of Wadi Al-Seer, southwest of Amman, which is home to Qasr al-Abd ('Castle of the Slave'). Other nearby ruins include a village, an isolated house and a fountain, all of which are barely visible today due to the damage brought by a major earthquake that hit the region in the year 362.[32] Qasr al-Abd is believed to have been built by Hyrcanus of Jerusalem, who was the head of the powerful Jewish Tobiad family. Shortly after he began the construction of that large building, in c. 170-168 BC, upon returning from a military campaign in Egypt, Antiochus IV conquered Jerusalem, ransacked the Second Temple where the treasure of Hyrcanus was kept, and appeared determined to attack Hyrcanus. Upon hearing this, Hyrcanus committed suicide,[33] leaving his palace in Philadelphia uncompleted.[33] The Tobiads fought the Arab Nabateans for twenty years until they lost the city to them. After losing Philadelphia, the Tobiad family disappears from written sources.[34] The Roman Theatre, built around AD 100The Romans conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted for four centuries. In the northern modern-day Jordan, the Greek cities of Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa, Gedara, Pella and Arbila joined with other cities in Palestine and Syria; Scythopolis, Hippos, Capitolias, Canatha and Damascus to form the Decapolis League, a fabled confederation linked by bonds of economic and cultural interest.[34] Philadelphia became a point along a road stretching from Ailah to Damascus that was built by Emperor Trajan in AD 106. This provided an economic boost for the city in a short period of time.[35] Roman rule in Jordan left several ruins across the country, some of which exist in Amman, such as the Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel, the Roman Theatre, the Odeon, and the Nymphaeum. The two theaters and the nymphaeum fountain were built during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius around AD 161. The theatre was the larger venue of the two and had a capacity for 6,000 attendees. It was oriented north and built into the hillside, to protect the audience from the sun. To the northeast of the theatre was a small odeon. Built at roughly the same time as the theatre, the Odeon had 500 seats and is still in use today for music concerts. Archaeologists speculate that the structure was originally covered with a wooden roof to shield the audience from the weather. The Nymphaeum is situated southwest of the Odeon and served as Philadelphia's chief fountain. The Nymphaeum is believed to have contained a 600 square meters (6,500 sq ft) pool which was 3 meters (9.8 ft) deep and was continuously refilled with water.[36] During the late Byzantine period in the seventh century, several bishops and churches were based in the city.[35] Islamic era (7th–15th centuries)See also: Desert castles The Umayyad Palace on top of the Amman Citadel, built around 700 ADIn the 630s, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the region from the Byzantines, beginning the Islamic era in the Levant. Philadelphia was renamed "Amman" by the Muslims and became part of the district of Jund Dimashq. A large part of the population already spoke Arabic, which facilitated integration into the caliphate, as well as several conversions to Islam. Under the Umayyad caliphs who began their rule in 661 AD, numerous desert castles were established as a means to govern the desert area of modern-day Jordan, several of which are still well-preserved. Amman had already been functioning as an administrative centre. The Umayyads built a large palace on the Amman Citadel hill, known today as the Umayyad Palace. Amman was later destroyed by several earthquakes and natural disasters, including a particularly severe earthquake in 747. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids three years later.[34] Amman's importance declined by the mid-8th century after damage caused by several earthquakes rendered it uninhabitable.[37] Excavations among the collapsed layer of the Umayyad Palace have revealed remains of kilns from the time of the Abbasids (750–969) and the Fatimids (969–1099).[38] In the late 9th century, Amman was noted as the "capital" of the Balqa by geographer al-Yaqubi.[39] Likewise, in 985, the Jerusalemite historian al-Muqaddasi described Amman as the capital of Balqa,[39] and that it was a town in the desert fringe of Syria surrounded by villages and cornfields and was a regional source of lambs, grain and honey.[40] Its inhabitants he reports, at the time, were Shia Muslims.[41] Furthermore, al-Muqaddasi describes Amman as a "harbor of the desert" where Arab Bedouin would take refuge, and that its citadel, which overlooked the town, contained a small mosque.[42] Ottoman ten-arches bridge, built in 1910 near Amman as part of the Hejaz railwayThe occupation of the Citadel Hill by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem is so far based only on interpretations of Crusader sources. William of Tyre writes in his Historia that in 1161 Philip of Milly received the castle of Ahamant, which is seen to refer to Amman, as part of the lordship of Oultrejordain.[43] In 1166 Philip joined the military order of the Knights Templar, passing on to them a significant part of his fief including the castle of Ahamant[44] or "Haman", as it is named in the deed of confirmation issued by King Amalric.[45] By 1170, Amman was in Ayyubid hands.[46] The remains of a watch tower on Citadel Hill, first attributed to the Crusaders, now are preferentially dated to the Ayyubid period, leaving it to further research to find the location of the Crusader castle.[45] During the Ayyubid period, the Damascene geographer al-Dimashqi wrote that Amman was part of the province of al-Karak, although "only ruins" remained of the town.[47] During the Mamluk era (late 13th–early 16th centuries), the region of Amman was a part of Wilayat Balqa, the southernmost district of Mamlakat Dimashq (Damascus Province).[48] The capital of the district in the first half of the 14th century was the minor administrative post of Hisban, which had a considerably smaller garrison than the other administrative centers in Transjordan, namely Ajlun and al-Karak.[49] In 1321, the geographer Abu'l Fida, recorded that Amman was "a very ancient town" with fertile soil and surrounded by agricultural fields.[42] For unclear, though likely financial reasons, in 1356, the capital of Balqa was transferred from Hisban to Amman, which was considered a madina (city).[50] In 1357, Emir Sirghitmish bought Amman in its entirety, most likely to use revenues from the city to help fund the Madrasa of Sirghitmish, which he built in Cairo that same year.[50] After his purchase of the city, Sirghitmish transferred the courts, administrative bureaucracy, markets and most of the inhabitants of Hisban to Amman.[50] Moreover, he financed new building works in the city.[50] Ownership of Amman following Sirghitmish's death in 1358 passed to successive generations of his descendants until 1395, when his descendants sold it to Emir Baydamur al-Khwarazmi, the na'ib as-saltana (viceroy) of Damascus.[50] Afterward, part of Amman's cultivable lands were sold to Emir Sudun al-Shaykhuni (died 1396), the na'ib as-saltana of Egypt.[51] The increasingly frequent division and sale of the city and lands of Amman to different owners signalled declining revenues coming from Amman, while at the same time, Hisban was restored as the major city of the Balqa in the 15th century.[52] From then until 1878, Amman was an abandoned site periodically used to shelter seasonal farmers who cultivated arable lands in its vicinity and by Bedouin tribes who used its pastures and water.[53][54] The Ottoman Empire annexed the region of Amman in 1516, but for much of the Ottoman period, al-Salt functioned as the virtual political center of Transjordan.[55] Modern era (1878–present) The historical center of Amman, showing the Roman ruins in 1878 immediately before its modern resettlement (left), and the same area in 2015 (right)Amman began to be resettled in 1878, when several hundred Muslim Circassians arrived following their expulsion from the formerly Ottoman Balkans.[55] Between 1878 and 1910, tens of thousands of Circassians had relocated to Ottoman Syria after being displaced by the Russian Empire during the events of the Russo-Circassian War.[56] The Ottoman authorities directed the Circassian, who were mainly of peasant stock, to settle in Amman, and distributed arable land among them.[citation needed] Their settlement was a partial manifestation of the Ottoman statesman Kamil Pasha's project to establish a vilayet centered in Amman, which, along with other sites in its vicinity, would become Circassian-populated townships guaranteeing the security of the Damascus–Medina highway.[57] The first Circassian settlers, who belonged to the Shapsug dialect group,[58] lived near Amman's Roman theater and incorporated its stones into the houses they built.[55] The English traveller Laurence Oliphant noted in his 1879 visit that most of the original Circassian settlers had left Amman by then, with about 150 remaining.[58] They were joined by Circassians from the Kabardian and Abzakh groups in 1880–1892.[58] The first scientific map of Amman, 1881. The British surveyors noted that: "The Circassian colony established by the Sultan at Amman about 1879 [is] neither prosperous nor likely to become so".[59]Until 1900 settlement was concentrated in the valley and slopes of the Amman stream and settlers built mud-brick houses with wooden roofs.[58] The French Dominican priest Marie-Joseph Lagrange commented in 1890 about Amman: "A mosque, the ancient bridges, all that jumbled with the houses of the Circassians gives Amman a remarkable physiognomy".[58] The new village became a nahiye (subdistrict) center of the kaza of al-Salt in the Karak Sanjak established in 1894.[58] By 1908 Amman contained 800 houses divided between three main quarters, Shapsug, Kabartai and Abzakh, each called after the Circassian groupings which respectively settled there, a number of mosques, open-air markets, shops, bakeries, mills, a textile factory, a post and telegraph office and a government compound (saraya).[58] Kurdish settlers formed their own quarter called "al-Akrad" after them, while a number of townspeople from nearby al-Salt and al-Fuheis, seeking to avoid high taxes and conscription or attracted by financial incentives, and traders from Najd and Morocco, had also moved to the town.[60] The city's demographics changed dramatically after the Ottoman government's decision to construct the Hejaz Railway, which linked Damascus and Medina, and facilitated the annual Hajj pilgrimage and trade. Operational in central Transjordan since 1903, the Hejaz Railway helped to transform Amman from a small village into a major commercial hub in the region. Circassian entrepreneurship, facilitated by the railway, helped to attract investment from merchants from Damascus, Nablus, and Jerusalem, many of whom moved to Amman in the 1900s and 1910s.[55] Amman's first municipal council was established in 1909, and Circassian Ismael Babouk was elected as its mayor.[61] The First and Second Battle of Amman were part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I and the Arab Revolt, taking place in 1918. Amman had a strategic location along the Hejaz Railway; its capture by British forces and the Hashemite Arab army facilitated the British advance towards Damascus.[62] The second battle was won by the British, resulting in the establishment of the British Mandate. Amman 1928In 1921, the Hashemite emir and later king Abdullah I designated Amman instead of al-Salt to be the capital of the newly created state, the Emirate of Transjordan, which became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1950. Its function as the capital of the country attracted immigrants from different Levantine areas, particularly from al-Salt, a nearby city that had been the largest urban settlement east of the Jordan River at the time. The early settlers who came from Palestine were overwhelmingly from Nablus, from which many of al-Salt's inhabitants had originated. They were joined by other immigrants from Damascus. Amman later attracted people from the southern part of the country, particularly al-Karak and Madaba. The city's population was around 10,000 in the 1930s.[63] The British report from 1933 shows around 1,700 Circassians living in Amman.[64] Yet the community was far from insulated. Local urban and nomadic communities formed alliances with the Circassians, some of which are still present today. This cemented the status of Circassians in the re-established city.[55] Jordan gained its independence in 1946 and Amman was designated the country's capital. Amman received many refugees during wartime events in nearby countries, beginning with the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. A second wave arrived after the Six-Day War in 1967. In 1970, Amman was a battlefield during the conflict between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the Jordanian Army known as Black September. The Jordanian Army defeated the PLO in 1971, and the latter were expelled to Lebanon.[65] The first wave of Iraqi and Kuwaiti refugees settled in the city after the 1991 Gulf War, with a second wave occurring in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Amman in 1985On 9 November 2005, Al-Qaeda under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.[66] Jordan's security as a whole was dramatically improved after the attack, and no major terrorist attacks have been reported since then.[67][68] Most recently a wave of Syrian refugees have arrived in the city during the ongoing Syrian Civil War which began in 2011. Amman was a principal destination for refugees for the security and prosperity it offered.[69] Amman in 2013During the 2010s, the city has experienced an economic, cultural and urban boom. The large growth in population has significantly increased the need for new accommodation, and new districts of the city were established at a quick pace. This strained Jordan's scarce water supply and exposed Amman to the dangers of quick expansion without careful municipal planning.[70] Geography Taken from space, aftermath of a snowstorm in January 2022, where clear contrast is seen in accumulations between Amman's western and eastern neighbourhoods, the latter being on average 150 meters (492 feet) lower in elevation.Amman is situated on the East Bank Plateau, an upland characterized by three major wadis which run through it.[71] Originally, the city had been built on seven hills.[72] Amman's terrain is typified by its mountains.[73] The most important areas in the city are named after the hills or mountains they lie on.[74] The area's elevation ranges from 700 to 1,100 m (2,300 to 3,600 ft).[75] Al-Salt and al-Zarqa are located to the northwest and northeast, respectively, Madaba is located to the west, and al-Karak and Ma'an are to Amman's southwest and southeast, respectively. One of the only remaining springs in Amman now supplies the Zarqa River with water.[76] Trees found in Amman include Aleppo pine, Mediterranean cypress and Phoenician juniper.[77] Climate Spring in Dabouq, an affluent neighborhood in the city A neighbourhood in Amman during a snowstorm in January 2022.Amman features a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) in its western and northern neighborhoods, while its eastern and southern neighborhoods experience a semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh/BSk). The summer season in Amman is moderately long, characterized by mild heat and refreshing breezes. However, occasional heatwaves may occur during this period. Spring is brief yet warm, with temperatures reaching highs of 28 °C (82 °F). This season typically commences between April and May, lasting for about a month. Winter usually sets in around the end of November, extending through early to mid-March. During winter, temperatures typically hover around or below 17 °C (63 °F), with sporadic snowfall occurring once or twice a year. The average annual rainfall in Amman is around 375 mm (15 in), with variations between different parts of the city. The western areas receive approximately 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall, whereas the eastern areas receive about 250 mm (10 in). Rainfall primarily occurs between November and April, and periodic droughts are not uncommon. Amman experiences heavy fog on about 120 days each year. The city's diverse weather conditions are heavily influenced by differences in elevation. While snow might accumulate in the higher-altitude western and northern regions of Amman (with an average altitude of 1,000 m or 3,300 ft above sea level), the city center (at an elevation of 700 m or 2,300 ft) might experience rainfall simultaneously. This variation in elevation leads to extreme microclimates within Amman, with each district having its own distinct weather patterns. Climate data for East AmmanMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearRecord high °C (°F)23.0(73.4)27.3(81.1)32.6(90.7)37.0(98.6)38.7(101.7)40.6(105.1)43.5(110.3)43.7(110.7)40.0(104.0)37.6(99.7)31.0(87.8)27.5(81.5)43.7(110.7)Average high °C (°F)12.7(54.9)13.9(57.0)17.6(63.7)23.3(73.9)27.9(82.2)30.9(87.6)32.5(90.5)32.7(90.9)30.8(87.4)26.8(80.2)20.1(68.2)14.6(58.3)23.7(74.66)Daily mean °C (°F)8.5(47.3)9.4(48.9)12.4(54.3)17.1(62.8)21.4(70.5)24.6(76.3)26.5(79.7)26.6(79.9)24.6(76.3)21.0(69.8)15.0(59.0)10.2(50.4)18.1(64.6)Average low °C (°F)4.2(39.6)4.8(40.6)7.2(45.0)10.9(51.6)14.8(58.6)18.3(64.9)20.5(68.9)20.4(68.7)18.3(64.9)15.1(59.2)9.8(49.6)5.8(42.4)12.5(54.5)Record low °C (°F)−4.5(23.9)−4.4(24.1)−3.0(26.6)−3.0(26.6)3.9(39.0)8.9(48.0)11.0(51.8)11.0(51.8)10.0(50.0)5.0(41.0)0.0(32.0)−2.6(27.3)−4.5(23.9)Average precipitation mm (inches)60.6(2.39)62.8(2.47)34.1(1.34)7.1(0.28)3.2(0.13)0.0(0.0)0.0(0.0)0.0(0.0)0.1(0.00)7.1(0.28)23.7(0.93)46.3(1.82)245.0(9.65)Average precipitation days11.010.98.04.01.60.10.00.00.12.35.38.451.7Mean monthly sunshine hours179.8182.0226.3266.6328.6369.0387.5365.8312.0275.9225.0179.83,289.7Source 1: Jordan Meteorological Department[78]Source 2: NOAA (sun 1961–1990),[79] Pogoda.ru.net (records)[80]Climate data for West AmmanMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearRecord high °C (°F)21.0(69.8)25.5(77.9)30.5(86.9)35.0(95.0)36.5(97.7)38.5(101.3)41.5(106.7)41.5(106.7)38.0(100.4)35.5(95.9)29.0(84.2)25.5(77.9)41.5(106.7)Average high °C (°F)10.5(50.9)12.0(53.6)15.5(59.9)21.5(70.7)26.0(78.8)29.0(84.2)30.5(86.9)30.5(86.9)29.0(84.2)25.0(77.0)18.0(64.4)12.5(54.5)21.5(70.7)Daily mean °C (°F)6.5(43.7)7.5(45.5)10.5(50.9)15.0(59.0)19.5(67.1)22.5(72.5)24.5(76.1)24.5(76.1)23.0(73.4)19.0(66.2)13.0(55.4)8.0(46.4)16.1(61.0)Average low °C (°F)2.0(35.6)3.0(37.4)5.0(41.0)9.0(48.2)13.0(55.4)16.5(61.7)18.5(65.3)18.5(65.3)16.0(60.8)13.0(55.4)8.0(46.4)4.0(39.2)10.5(50.9)Record low °C (°F)−9.0(15.8)−6.5(20.3)−5.0(23.0)−5.0(23.0)2.0(35.6)7.0(44.6)9.0(48.2)9.0(48.2)8.0(46.4)3.0(37.4)−2.0(28.4)−4.5(23.9)−9.0(15.8)Average precipitation mm (inches)132.5(5.22)132.5(5.22)75.0(2.95)15.0(0.59)7.0(0.28)0.0(0.0)0.0(0.0)0.0(0.0)0.2(0.01)15.0(0.59)50.0(1.97)100.0(3.94)525.0(20.67)Average precipitation days13.012.010.04.51.50.00.00.00.53.57.511.063.5Source 1: Jordan Meteorological Department[78]Source 2: NOAA (sun 1961–1990),[79] Pogoda.ru.net (records)[80]Ultraviolet index[81]JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear35791012121196437.5Local governmentSee also: List of mayors of AmmanAmman is governed by a 41-member city council elected in four-year term direct elections. All Jordanian citizens above 18 years old are eligible to vote in the municipal elections. However, the mayor is appointed by the king and not through elections.[18] In 1909 a city council was established in Amman by Circassian Ismael Babouk who became the first-ever mayor of the capital, and in 1914 Amman's first city district center was founded.[82] The Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) has been investing in making the city a better place, through a number of initiatives. Green Amman 2020 was initiated in 2014, aiming to turn the city to a green metropolis by 2020. According to official statistics, only 2.5% of Amman is green space.[83] In 2015 GAM and Zain Jordan started operating free-of-charge Wi-Fi services at 15 locations, including Wakalat Street, Rainbow Street, The Hashemite Plaza, Ashrafieh Cultural Complex, Zaha Cultural Center, Al Hussein Cultural Center, Al Hussein Public Parks and others.[84] Administrative divisionsJordan is divided into twelve administrative divisions, each called a governorate. Amman Governorate divides into nine districts, five of which are divided into sub-districts. The Greater Amman Municipality has 22 areas which are further divided into neighborhoods.[85] The city is administered as the Greater Amman Municipality and covers 22 areas which include:[86][87] NumberAreaArea (km2)Population (2015)NumberAreaArea (km2)Population (2015)1Al-Madinah3.134,98812Kherbet Al-Souk0.5186,1582Basman13.4373,98113Al-Mgablein2399,7383Marka23148,10014Wadi Al-Seer80241,8304Al-Nasr28.4258,82915Badr Al-Jadeedah1917,8915Al-Yarmouk5.5180,77316Sweileh20151,0166Ras Al-Ein6.8138,02417Tla' Al-Ali19.8251,0007Bader10.1229,30818Jubeiha25.9197,1608Zahran13.8107,52919Shafa Badran4572,3159Al-Abdali15165,33320Abu Nseir5072,48910Tariq25175,19421Uhod25040,00011Qweismeh45.9296,76322Marj Al-Hamam5382,788EconomyBanking sectorThe banking sector is one of the principal foundations of Jordan's economy. Despite the unrest and economic difficulties in the Arab world resulting from the Arab Spring uprisings, Jordan's banking sector maintained its growth in 2014. The sector consists of 25 banks, 15 of which are listed on the Amman Stock Exchange. Amman is the base city for the international Arab Bank, one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East, serving clients in more than 600 branches in 30 countries on five continents. Arab Bank represents 28% of the Amman Stock Exchange and is the highest-ranked institution by market capitalization on the exchange.[88] TourismAmman is the 4th most visited Arab city and the ninth highest recipient of international visitor spending. Roughly 1.8 million tourists visited Amman in 2011 and spent over $1.3 billion in the city.[89] The expansion of Queen Alia International Airport is an example of the Greater Amman Municipality's heavy investment in the city's infrastructure. The recent construction of a public transportation system and a national railway, and the expansion of roads, are intended to ease the traffic generated by the millions of annual visitors to the city.[90] Amman, and Jordan in general, is the Middle East's hub for medical tourism. Jordan receives the most medical tourists in the region and the fifth highest in the world. Amman receives 250,000 foreign patients a year and over $1 billion annually.[91] BusinessAmman is introducing itself as a business hub. The city's skyline is being continuously transformed through the emergence of new projects. A significant portion of business flowed into Amman following the 2003 Iraq War. Jordan's main airport, Queen Alia International Airport, is located south of Amman and is the hub for the country's national carrier Royal Jordanian, a major airline in the region.[92] The airline is headquartered in Zahran district. Rubicon Group Holding and Maktoob, two major regional information technology companies, are based in Amman, along with major international corporations such as Hikma Pharmaceuticals, one of the Middle East's largest pharmaceutical companies, and Aramex, the Middle East's largest logistics and transportation company.[93][94] In a report by Dunia Frontier Consultants, Amman, along with Doha, Qatar and Dubai, United Arab Emirates, are the favored hubs for multinational corporations operating in the Middle East and North Africa region.[15] In FDI magazine, Amman was chosen as the Middle Eastern city with the most potential to be a leader in foreign direct investment in the region.[93] Furthermore, several of the world's largest investment banks have offices in Amman including Standard Chartered, Société Générale, and Citibank.[95] DemographicsHistorical population of AmmanYearHistorical population±%7250 BC3,000— 1879500−83.3%19065,000+900.0%193010,000+100.0%194020,000+100.0%1952108,000+440.0%1979848,587+685.7%19991,864,500+119.7%20042,315,600+24.2%20102,842,629+22.8%20154,007,526+41.0%Source: [96][97][18]Largest groups of Arab foreign residents[98]NationalityPopulation (2015) Syria435,578 Egypt390,631 Palestinian territories308,091 Iraq121,893 Yemen27,109 Libya21,649Other147,742The population of Amman reached 4,007,526 in 2015; the city contains about 42% of Jordan's entire population.[8] It has a land area of 1,680 km2 (648.7 sq mi) which yields a population density of about 2,380 inhabitants per square kilometer (6,200/sq mi).[99] The population of Amman has risen exponentially with the successive waves of immigrants and refugees arriving throughout the 20th century. From a population of roughly 1,000 in 1890, Amman grew to around 1,000,000 inhabitants in 1990, primarily as a result of immigration, but also due to the high birthrate in the city.[100] Amman had been abandoned for centuries until hundreds of Circassians settled it in the 19th century. Today, about 40,000 Circassians live in Amman and its vicinity.[101] After Amman became a major hub along the Hejaz Railway in 1914, many Muslim and Christian merchant families from al-Salt immigrated to the city.[102] A large proportion of Amman's inhabitants have Palestinian roots (urban or rural origin), and the two main demographic groups in the city today are Arabs of Palestinian or Jordanian descent. Other ethnic groups comprise about 2% of the population. There are no official statistics about the proportion of people of Palestinian or Jordanian descent.[103] New arrivals consisting of Jordanians from the north and south of the country and immigrants from Palestine had increased the city's population from 30,000 in 1930 to 60,000 in 1947.[104] About 10,000 Palestinians, mostly from Safed, Haifa and Acre, migrated to the city for economic opportunities before the 1948 war.[105] Many of the immigrants from al-Salt from that time were originally from Nablus.[106] The 1948 war caused an exodus of urban Muslim and Christian Palestinian refugees, mostly from Jaffa, Ramla and Lydda, to Amman,[105] whose population swelled to 110,000.[104] With Jordan's capture of the West Bank during the war, many Palestinians from that area steadily migrated to Amman between 1950 and 1966, before another mass wave of Palestinian refugees from the West Bank moved to the city during the 1967 War. By 1970, the population had swelled to an estimated 550,000.[104] A further 200,000 Palestinians arrived after their expulsion from Kuwait during the 1991 Gulf War. Several large Palestinian refugee camps exist around the center of Amman.[107] Because Amman lacks a deep-rooted native population, the city does not have a distinct Arabic dialect, although recently such a dialect utilizing the various Jordanian and Palestinian dialects, has been forming.[108] The children of immigrants in the city are also increasingly referring to themselves as "Ammani", unlike much of the first-generation inhabitants who identify more with their respective places of origin.[109] ReligionAmman has a mostly Sunni Muslim population, and the city contains numerous mosques.[110] Among the main mosques is the large King Abdullah I Mosque, built between 1982 and 1989. It is capped by a blue mosaic dome beneath which 3,000 Muslims may offer prayer. The Abu Darweesh Mosque, noted for its checkered black-and-white pattern, has an architectural style that is unique to Jordan.[111] The mosque is situated on Jabal Ashrafieh, the highest point in the city. The mosque's interior is marked by light-colored walls and Persian carpets. During the 2004 Amman Message conference, edicts from various clergy-members afforded the following schools of thought as garnering collective recognition: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi'i, Ja'fari, Zahiri, Zaydi, Ibadi, tassawuf-related Sufism, Muwahhidism and Salafism.[112] Amman also has a small Druze community.[113] Large numbers of Christians from throughout Jordan, particularly from al-Salt, have moved to Amman. Nearby Fuheis is a predominantly Christian town located to the northwest of the city.[114] A small Armenian Catholic community of around 70 families is present in the city.[115] Ecclesiastical courts for matters of personal status are also located in Amman. A total of 16 historic churches are located in Umm ar-Rasas ruins in Al-Jeezah district; the site is believed to have initially served as Roman fortified military camps which gradually became a town around the 5th century AD. It has not been completely excavated. It was influenced by several civilizations including the Romans, Byzantines and Muslims. The site contains some well-preserved mosaic floors, particularly the mosaic floor of the Church of Saint Stephen.[116] Cityscape A panoramic view of east Amman from atop the Amman Citadel overlooking the Roman theaterDowntown Amman, the city center area (known in Arabic as Al-Balad), has been dwarfed by the sprawling urban area that surrounds it. Despite the changes, much remains of its old character. Jabal Amman is a tourist attraction in old Amman, where the city's largest souks, museums, ancient constructions, monuments, and cultural sites are found. Jabal Amman also contains the famous Rainbow Street and the cultural Souk Jara market.[117] A view of an East Amman slumArchitecture Progress at Abdali Project as of 2018Residential buildings are limited to four stories above street level and if possible another four stories below, according to the Greater Amman Municipality regulations. The buildings are covered with thick white or beige limestone or sandstone.[118] The buildings usually have balconies on each floor, with the exception of the ground floor, which has a front and back yard. Some buildings make use of Mangalore tiles on the roofs or on the roof of covered porches. Hotels, towers and commercial buildings are either covered by stone, plastic or glass.[119] High-rise construction and towersSee also: List of tallest buildings in Amman Jordan Gate Towers as seen from the westZahran district in west Amman is the location of the Jordan Gate Towers, the first high-rise towers in the city. It is a high-class commercial and residential project under construction, close to the 6th Circle. The towers are one of the best-known skyscrapers in the city.[120] The southern tower will host a Hilton Hotel, while the northern tower will host offices. The towers are separated by a podium that is planned to become a mall. It also contains bars, swimming pools and conference halls. The developers are Bahrain's Gulf Finance House, the Kuwait Investment and Finance Company (KIFC). The project is expected to be opened by 2025.[120] Abdali Urban Regeneration Project in Abdali district will host a mall, a boulevard along with several hotels, commercial and residential towers. Valued at more than US$5 billion, the Abdali project will create a new visible center for Amman and act as the major business district for the city.[121] The first phase contains about ten towers, five of which are under construction to be completed by 2016.[122] Across 30,000 square meters of land, a central dynamic park is the main feature of phase II which will serve as a focal theme for mainly residential, office, hotel and retail developments over 800,000 square meters.[123] The towers in the first phase include Rotana Hotel Amman, W Hotel Amman, The Heights Tower, Clemenceau Medical Center tower, Abdali mall tower, Abdali Gateway tower, K tower, Vertex Tower, Capital tower, Saraya headquarters tower and Hamad tower.[124] CultureMuseumsSee also: Category:Museums in Amman The Jordan Museum, located near downtownThe largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum. It contains much of the valuable archeological findings in the country,[125] including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Neolithic limestone statues of 'Ain Ghazal, and a copy of the Mesha Stele. Other museums include the Duke's Diwan, Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts, Jordan Archaeological Museum, The Children's Museum Jordan, The Martyrs' Memorial and Museum, the Royal Automobile Museum, the Prophet Mohammad Museum, the Museum of Parliamentary Life, the Jordan Folklore Museum, and museums at the University of Jordan.[126] LifestyleAmman is considered one of the most liberal cities in the Arab world.[127] The city has become one of the most popular destinations for expatriates and college students who seek to live, study, or work in the Middle East or the Arab world in general.[128] The city's culinary scene has changed from its shawarma stands and falafel joints to embrace many popular international restaurants and fast-food outlets such as Asian fusion restaurants, French bistros and Italian trattorias. The city has become famous for its fine dining scene among Western expatriates and Persian Gulf tourists.[129] Souk Jara is one of the most famous outdoor markets managed by the Jabal Amman Residents Association (JARA).Large shopping malls were built during the 2000s in Amman, including the Mecca Mall, Abdoun Mall, City Mall, Al-Baraka Mall, Taj Mall, Zara Shopping Center, Avenue Mall, and Abdali Mall in Al Abdali.[130] Wakalat Street ("Agencies Street") is Amman's first pedestrian-only street and carries a lot of name-label clothes. The Sweifieh area is considered to be the main shopping district of Amman.[131] Nightclubs, music bars and shisha lounges are present across Amman, changing the city's old image as the conservative capital of the kingdom. This burgeoning new nightlife scene is shaped by Jordan's young population.[132] In addition to the wide range of drinking and dancing venues on the social circuit of the city's affluent crowd, Amman hosts cultural entertainment events, including the annual Amman Summer Festival. Souk Jara is a Jordanian weekly flea market event that occurs every Friday throughout the summer.[133] Sweifieh is considered to be the unofficial red-light district of Amman as it holds most of the city's nightclubs, bars.[134] Jabal Amman and Jabal al-Luweibdeh are home to many pubs and bars as well, making the area popular among bar hoppers.[129] Alcohol is widely available in restaurants, bars, nightclubs, and supermarkets.[135][136] There are numerous nightclubs and bars across the city, especially in West Amman. As of 2011, there were 77 registered nightclubs in Jordan (excluding bars and pubs), overwhelmingly located in the capital city.[137] In 2009, there were 222 registered liquor stores in Amman.[138] CuisineSee also: Jordanian cuisineDanielle Pergament of The New York Times described Ammani cuisine as a product of several cuisines in the region, writing that it combines "the bright vegetables from Lebanon, crunchy falafels from Syria, juicy kebabs from Egypt and, most recently, spicy meat dishes from Jordan's neighbor, Iraq. It's known as the food of the Levant – an ancient word for the area bounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian peninsula. But the food here isn't just the sum of its calories. In this politically, religiously and ethnically fraught corner of the world, it is a symbol of bloodlines and identity."[139] However, the city's street food scene makes the Ammani cuisine distinctive.[2][140] SportsAmman-based football clubs Al-Wehdat and Al-Faisaly, both former league champions, share one of the most popular rivalries in the local football scene.[141] Amman hosted the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup along with Irbid and Zarqa.[142][143] The 2007 Asian Athletics Championships and more than one edition of the IAAF World Cross Country Championships were held in the city.[144] Amman also hosts the Jordan Rally, which form part of the FIA World Rally Championship, becoming one of the largest sporting events ever held in Jordan.[145] Amman is home to a growing number of foreign sports such as skateboarding and rugby; the latter has two teams based in the city: Amman Citadel Rugby Club and Nomads Rugby Club.[146] In 2014, German non-profit organization Make Life Skate Life completed construction of the 7Hills Skatepark, a 650 square meter concrete skatepark located at Samir Rifai park in Downtown Amman.[147] A panoramic view of Amman International Stadium in the Sport CityMedia and musicThe majority of Jordan's radio stations are based in Amman. The first radio station to originate in the city was Hunna Amman in 1959; it mainly broadcast traditional Bedouin music.[148] In 2000, Amman Net became the first de facto private radio station to be established in the country, despite private ownership of radio stations being illegal at the time.[149] After private ownership was legalized in 2002, several more radio stations were created.[150] Most Jordanian newspapers and news stations are situated in Amman. Daily newspapers published in Amman include Alghad,[151] Ad-Dustour,[152] The Jordan Times,[151] and Al Ra'i, the most circulated newspaper in the country.[153] In 2011, Al Ra'i was ranked the 5th most popular newspaper in the Arab world by Forbes Middle-East report.[154] Al-Arab Al-Yawm is the only daily pan-Arab newspaper in Jordan. The two most popular Jordanian TV channels, Ro'ya TV and JRTV, are based in Amman.[153] Celebrations of Amman's centennial in 2009Aside from mainstream Arabic pop, there is a growing independent music scene in the city which includes many bands that have sizable audiences across the Arab world. Local Ammani bands along with other bands in the Middle East gather in the Roman Theater during the Al-Balad Music Festival held annually in August. Music genres of the local bands are diverse, ranging from heavy metal to Arabic Rock, jazz and rap. Performers include JadaL, Torabyeh, Bilocate, Akher Zapheer, Autostrad and El Morabba3.[155] EventsMany events take place in Amman, including Red Bull-sponsored events Soundclash and Soapbox race, the second part of Jerash Festival, Al-Balad Music Festival, Amman Marathon, Made in Jordan Festival, Amman Book Festival and New Think Festival.[156] Venues for such cultural events often include the Roman and Odeon Theaters downtown, the Ras al Ain Hanger, King Hussein Business Park, Rainbow Theater and Shams Theater, the Royal Film Commission, Shoman libraries and Darat al Funun, and the Royal Cultural Center at Sports City. In addition to large-scale events and institutional planning, scholars point to tactical urbanism as a key element of the city's cultural fabric.[157] TransportationAirports Queen Alia International AirportThe main airport serving Amman is Queen Alia International Airport, situated about 30 km (18.64 mi) south of Amman. Much smaller is Amman Civil Airport, a one-terminal airport that serves primarily domestic and nearby international routes and the army. Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and the hub for Royal Jordanian, the flag carrier. Its expansion was recently done and modified, including the decommissioning of the old terminals and the commissioning of new terminals costing $700M, to handle over 16 million passengers annually.[158] It is now considered a state-of-the-art airport and was named 'the best airport in the Middle East' for 2014 and 2015 and 'the best improvement in the Middle East' for 2014 by Airport Service Quality Survey, the world's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program.[159] RoadsSee also: List of roads in AmmanAmman has an extensive road network. Eight roundabout "circles", which formerly marked neighborhoods, are used as landmarks.[160] The road network includes many bridges and tunnels due to the mountainous nature of the terrain. A leading example is the Abdoun Bridge, which spans Wadi Abdoun and connects the 4th Circle to Abdoun Circle. It is considered one of Amman's many landmarks and is the first curved suspended bridge to be built in the country.[160] Abdoun Bridge, considered one of Amman's landmarksSuccessive waves of refugees to the city has led to the rapid construction of new neighborhoods, but Amman's capacity for new or widened roads remains limited despite the influx. This has resulted in increasing traffic jams, particularly during summer when there are large numbers of tourists and Jordanian expatriates visiting.[161] In 2015, a ring road encompassing the city was constructed, which aims to connect the northern and southern parts of the city in order for traffic to be diverted outside Amman and to improve the environmental conditions in the city.[162] BRT bus at a stop along its routeBus and taxiThe city has frequent bus connections to other cities in Jordan, as well as to major cities in neighboring countries; the latter are also served by service taxis. Internal transport is served by a number of bus routes and taxis. Service taxis, which most often operate on fixed routes, are readily available and inexpensive. The two main bus and taxi stations are Abdali (near the King Abdullah Mosque, the Parliament and Palace of Justice) and the Raghadan Central Bus Station near the Roman theater in the city center. Popular Jordanian bus company services include JETT and Al-Mahatta. Taxis are the most common way to get around in Amman due their high availability and inexpensiveness.[163] The Amman Bus and the Amman Bus Rapid Transit public transportation systems currently serve the city. Construction work on the BRT system started in 2010, but was halted soon after amid feasibility concerns. Resuming in 2015, the first route of the BRT system was inaugurated in 2021, and the second in 2022. Another BRT route connecting Amman with Zarqa is also under construction and is expected to be operational by 2023.[164] The BRT system in Amman runs on 2 routes: the first from Sweileh in northwest Amman to the Ras Al-Ain area next to downtown Amman, and the second from Sweileh to Mahatta terminal in eastern Amman. Both routes meet at the Sports City intersection. The first route is currently served by three lines: 98, 99 and 100.[164] Ticket price for all lines of Amman Bus and Amman BRT are bought either online via the Amman Bus mobile application or as a rechargeable card in major terminals. Passengers scan their cards or QR codes on phone when boarding the bus, where the price ticket is subtracted from the available balance. The buses are air-conditioned, accessible, monitored with security cameras and have free internet service.[164] EducationSee also: List of universities in Jordan Al-Isra University in AmmanAmman is a major regional center of education. The Amman region hosts Jordan's highest concentration of education centers. There are 20 universities in Amman. The University of Jordan is the largest public university in the city.[165] There are 448 private schools in the city attended by 90,000 students,[166] including Jubilee School, Amman Baccalaureate School, Amman Academy, Amman National School, Modern American School, American Community School in Amman, and National Orthodox School. University of Jordan libraryUniversities include: University of JordanAl-Ahliyya Amman UniversityAl-Isra UniversityAl-Zaytoonah University of JordanAmman Arab UniversityApplied Science UniversityArab Academy for Banking and Financial SciencesArab Open UniversityColumbia University: Amman BranchGerman-Jordanian University: Amman BranchJordan Academy for Maritime StudiesJordan Academy of MusicJordan Institute of Banking StudiesJordan Media InstituteMiddle East UniversityUniversity of PetraPhiladelphia UniversityPrincess Sumaya University for TechnologyQueen Noor Civil Aviation Technical CollegeWorld Islamic Sciences and Education UniversityTwin towns – sister citiesSee also: List of twin towns and sister cities in JordanAmman is twinned with:[167][168] Oman Muscat, Oman (1986)Saudi Arabia Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (1988)Egypt Cairo, Egypt (1988)Morocco Rabat, Morocco (1988)Yemen Sanaa, Yemen (1989)Pakistan Islamabad, Pakistan (1989)Turkey Ankara, Turkey (1992)Sudan Khartoum, Sudan (1993)Qatar Doha, Qatar (1995)Turkey Istanbul, Turkey (1997)Algeria Algiers, Algeria (1998)Romania Bucharest, Romania (1999)Mauritania Nouakchott, Mauritania (1999)Tunisia Tunis, Tunisia (1999)Bulgaria Sofia, Bulgaria (2000)Lebanon Beirut, Lebanon (2000)South Africa Pretoria, South Africa (2002)Honduras Tegucigalpa, Honduras (2002)United States Chicago, United States (2004)[169]Italy Calabria, Italy (2005)Russia Moscow, Russia (2005)Kazakhstan Astana, Kazakhstan (2005)Bosnia and Herzegovina Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006)[170]Bahrain Central Governorate, Bahrain (2006)Kyrgyzstan Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (2006)United States San Francisco, United States (2010)[171]Bangladesh Sylhet, BangladeshSingapore Singapore, Singapore (2014)Armenia Yerevan, Armenia (2015)[172]United States Cincinnati, United States (2015)GalleryLe Royal HotelLe Royal Hotel Downtown AmmanDowntown Amman Aerial viewAerial view Panorama of Amman, the capital city of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, from the Citadel hillPanorama of Amman from the Citadel hillSee alsoList of tallest buildings in Amman Hussein bin Talal (Arabic: الحسين بن طلال, romanized: Al-Ḥusayn bin Ṭalāl; 14 November 1935 – 7 February 1999) was King of Jordan from 11 August 1952 until his death in 1999. As a member of the Hashemite dynasty, the royal family of Jordan since 1921, Hussein was a 40th-generation direct descendant of Muhammad. Hussein was born in Amman as the eldest child of Talal bin Abdullah and Zein al-Sharaf bint Jamil. Talal was then the heir to his own father, King Abdullah I. Hussein began his schooling in Amman, continuing his education abroad. After Talal became king in 1951, Hussein was named heir apparent. The Jordanian Parliament forced Talal to abdicate a year later due to his illness, and a regency council was appointed until Hussein came of age. He was enthroned at the age of 17 on 2 May 1953. Hussein was married four separate times and fathered eleven children. Hussein, a constitutional monarch with wide executive and legislative powers, started his rule with what was termed a "liberal experiment", allowing in 1956 the formation of the only democratically elected government in Jordan's history. A few months into the experiment, he forced that government to resign, declaring martial law and banning political parties. Jordan fought three wars with Israel under Hussein, including the 1967 Six-Day War, which ended in Jordan's loss of the West Bank. In 1970, Hussein expelled Palestinian fighters (fedayeen) from Jordan after they had threatened the country's security in what became known as Black September in Jordan. The King renounced Jordan's ties to the West Bank in 1988 after the Palestine Liberation Organization was recognized internationally as the sole representative of the Palestinians. He lifted martial law and reintroduced elections in 1989 when riots over price hikes spread in southern Jordan. In 1994 he became the second Arab head of state to sign a peace treaty with Israel. At the time of Hussein's accession in 1953, Jordan was a young nation and controlled the West Bank. The country had few natural resources, and a large Palestinian refugee population as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Hussein led his country through four turbulent decades of the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Cold War, successfully balancing pressures from Arab nationalists, Islamists, the Soviet Union, Western countries, and Israel, transforming Jordan by the end of his 46-year reign into a stable modern state. After 1967 he engaged in efforts to solve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He acted as a conciliatory intermediate between various Middle Eastern rivals, and came to be seen as the region's peacemaker. He was revered for pardoning political dissidents and opponents, and giving them senior posts in the government. Hussein, who survived dozens of assassination attempts and plots to overthrow him, was the region's longest-reigning leader. He died at the age of 63 from cancer in 1999 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdullah II. Early life Hussein (age six) and his mother, Zein al-Sharaf, 1941Hussein was born in Amman on 14 November 1935 to Crown Prince Talal and Princess Zein al-Sharaf.[1] Hussein was the eldest among his siblings, three brothers and two sisters – Princess Asma, Prince Muhammad, Prince Hassan, Prince Muhsin, and Princess Basma.[2] During one cold Ammani winter, his baby sister Princess Asma died from pneumonia, an indication of how poor his family was then – they could not afford heating in their house.[2] Hussein was the namesake of his paternal great-grandfather, Hussein bin Ali (Sharif of Mecca), the leader of the 1916 Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire.[3] Hussein claimed to be an agnatic descendant of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and her husband Ali, the fourth caliph, since Hussein belonged to the Hashemite family, which had ruled Mecca for over 700 years – until its 1925 conquest by the House of Saud – and has ruled Jordan since 1921.[4][5][6] The Hashemites, the oldest ruling dynasty in the Muslim world, are the second-oldest-ruling dynasty in the world (after the Imperial House of Japan).[7] Hussein's maternal grandmother, Widjan Hanim, was the daughter of Shakir Pasha who was the Ottoman governor of Cyprus.[8] Hussein (age eleven) seen behind his grandfather King Abdullah I after the independence of Jordan was declared, 25 May 1946.The young prince started his elementary education in Amman. He was then educated at Victoria College in Alexandria, Egypt.[1] He proceeded to Harrow School in England, where he befriended his second cousin Faisal II of Iraq, who was also studying there.[1] Faisal was then King of Hashemite Iraq, but was under regency since he was the same age as Hussein.[1] Hussein's grandfather, King Abdullah I, the founder of modern Jordan, did not see in his two sons Talal and Nayef potential for kingship, and therefore he focused his efforts on the upbringing of his grandson Hussein.[9] A special relationship grew between the two. Abdullah assigned Hussein a private tutor for extra Arabic lessons,[9] and Hussein acted as interpreter for his grandfather during his meetings with foreign leaders, as Abdullah understood English but could not speak it.[9] On 20 July 1951, 15-year-old Prince Hussein travelled to Jerusalem to perform Friday prayers at the Masjid Al-Aqsa with his grandfather.[1] A Palestinian assassin opened fire on Abdullah and his grandson, amid rumours that the King had been planning to sign a peace treaty with the newly established state of Israel.[5] Abdullah died, but Hussein survived the assassination attempt and, according to witnesses, pursued the assassin.[5] Hussein was also shot, but the bullet was deflected by a medal on his uniform that his grandfather had given him.[5] ReignAccessionAbdullah's eldest son, Talal, was proclaimed King of Jordan.[10] Talal appointed his son Hussein as crown prince on 9 September 1951.[10] After a reign lasting less than thirteen months, the Parliament forced King Talal to abdicate due to his mental state – doctors had diagnosed schizophrenia.[10] In his brief reign, Talal had introduced a modern, somewhat liberal constitution in 1952 that is still in use today.[10] Hussein was proclaimed king on 11 August 1952, succeeding to the throne three months before his 17th birthday.[10] A telegram from Jordan was brought in to Hussein while he was staying with his mother abroad in Lausanne, Switzerland, addressed to 'His Majesty King Hussein'.[10] "I did not need to open it to know that my days as a schoolboy were over," Hussein later wrote in his memoirs.[10] He returned home to cheering crowds.[10] A three-man regency council made up of the prime minister and heads of the Senate and the House of Representatives was appointed until he became 18 (by the Muslim calendar).[11] Meanwhile, Hussein pursued further study at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.[1] He was enthroned on 2 May 1953, the same day that his cousin Faisal II assumed his constitutional powers as king of Iraq.[10] First years King Hussein in royal ceremonial dress, 1953The teenaged king inherited the throne not only of Jordan, but also of the West Bank, captured by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and annexed in 1950.[10] The country was poor in natural resources, and had a large Palestinian refugee population resulting from the war – the annexation of the West Bank had made Palestinians two-thirds of the population, outnumbering Jordanians.[10] Upon assuming the throne, he appointed Fawzi Mulki as prime minister.[10] Mulki's liberal policies, including freedom of the press, led to unrest as opposition groups started a propaganda campaign against the monarchy.[12] Palestinian fighters (fedayeen, meaning self-sacrificers) used Jordanian-controlled territory to launch attacks against Israel, sometimes provoking heavy retaliation.[10] One reprisal operation by Israel became known as the Qibya massacre; it resulted in the death of 66 civilians in the West Bank village of Qibya.[10] The incident led to protests, and in 1954 Hussein dismissed Mulki amid the unrest and appointed staunch royalist Tawfik Abu Al-Huda.[10] The country held parliamentary elections in October 1954, while the country's parties were not yet fully organized.[10] Abu Al-Huda lasted only a year, and the government underwent reshuffling three times within the following year.[10] The 1955 Baghdad Pact was a Western attempt to form a Middle Eastern alliance to counter Soviet influence and Gamal Abdel Nasser's Egypt.[10] Jordan then found itself in the middle of Cold War tensions.[10] Britain, Turkey, and Iraq were members of the pact, and Jordan was pressured by Britain to join.[10] Nasserism (a socialist Pan-Arabist ideology) swept the Arab World in the 1950s, and the proposal to join the pact triggered large riots in the country.[10] Curfews imposed by the Arab Legion did little to alleviate the situation and tensions persisted throughout 1955.[10] The local unrest, periodically fueled by propaganda transmitted from Egyptian radios, was only calmed after the King appointed a new prime minister who promised not to enter the Baghdad Pact.[10] Saudi Arabia found common ground with Egypt in their suspicions of the Hashemites, both in Jordan and in Iraq.[10] The Saudis massed troops near Aqaba on Jordan's southern borders in January 1956, and only withdrew after the British threatened to intervene on Jordan's behalf.[10] Hussein realized that the Arab nationalist trend had dominated Arab politics, and decided to start downgrading Jordan's relationship with the British.[10] On 1 March 1956, Hussein asserted Jordanian independence by Arabizing the army's command: he dismissed Glubb Pasha as the commander of the Arab Legion and replaced all the senior British officers with Jordanians, thereby renaming it into the "Jordan Armed Forces-Arab Army."[10] He annulled the Anglo-Jordanian treaty and replaced British subsidies with Arab aid.[10] Hussein's bold decisions were met with admiration at home and relations with Arab states improved.[10] "A liberal experiment"See also: Suleiman Nabulsi's cabinetEgyptian President Nasser received an outpouring of support from the Arab public after the Egyptian–Czechoslovak arms deal was signed in September 1955,[13] and his popularity in Jordan skyrocketed following the nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956; his actions were seen as a powerful stance against Western imperialism.[13] Hussein was also supportive of the moves.[13] The coinciding events in Egypt had Jordanian leftist opposition parties leaning greatly towards Nasser.[13] Hussein addressing his troops in 1956, as Ali Abu Nuwar, the army chief of staff, who in 1957 was involved in an alleged coup attempt, observes.The parliament that had been elected in 1954 was dissolved, and Hussein promised fair elections.[13] The parliamentary election held on 21 October 1956 saw the National Socialist Party emerge as the largest party, winning 12 seats out of 40 in the House of Representatives.[13] Hussein subsequently asked Suleiman Nabulsi, leader of the Party, to form a government, the only democratically elected government in Jordan's history.[13] Hussein called this a "liberal experiment," to see how Jordanians would "react to responsibility."[13] On 29 October 1956, the Suez Crisis erupted in Egypt, as Britain, France, and Israel launched a military offensive to seize control of the canal.[13] Hussein was furious but Nabulsi discouraged him from intervening.[13] Nabulsi's policies frequently clashed with that of King Hussein's, including on how to deal with the Eisenhower Doctrine.[13] The King had requested Nabulsi, as prime minister, to crack down on the Communist Party and the media it controlled.[13] Nabulsi wanted to move Jordan closer to Nasser's regime, but Hussein wanted it to stay in the Western camp.[13] Disagreements between the monarchy and the leftist government culminated in March 1957 when Nabulsi provided Hussein with a list of senior officers in the military he wanted to dismiss; Hussein initially heeded the recommendations. However, Nabulsi then presented an expanded list, which Hussein refused to act upon.[14] Nabulsi's government was forced to resign on 10 April.[14] Hussein receiving a warm welcome from his troops, 1 March 1957On 13 April, rioting broke in the Zarqa army barracks and the 21-year-old Hussein went to end the violence between royalist and Arab nationalist army units after the latter group spread rumors that the King had been assassinated.[15] A 3,000-man Syrian force started moving south towards the Jordanian border in support of what they perceived as a coup attempt, but turned around after the army units showed their loyalty to the King.[16] Two principal accounts emerged regarding the events at Zarqa, with the royalist version holding that the incident was an abortive coup by army chief of staff Ali Abu Nuwar against King Hussein, and the dissident version asserting that it was a staged, American-backed counter-coup by Hussein against the pan-Arabist movement in Jordan.[17] In either case, Abu Nuwar and other senior Arabist officers resigned and were allowed to leave Jordan for Syria, where they incited opposition to the Jordanian monarchy.[17] Hussein reacted by imposing martial law.[18] Although he eventually relaxed some of these measures, namely military curfews and severe press censorship, Hussein's moves significantly curtailed the constitutional democracy that existed in Jordan in the mid-1950s.[19] The alleged conspirators were sentenced to 15 years in absentia, but later on were pardoned by Hussein in 1964 as part of his reconciliation efforts with his exiled opposition, and were entrusted with senior positions in the government.[19] Arab Federation between Iraq and JordanMain article: Arab FederationThe 1950s became known as the Arab Cold War, due to the conflict between states led by Nasserist Egypt and traditionalist kingdoms led by Saudi Arabia.[20] Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic (UAR) on 1 February 1958, with the Republic's presidency occupied by Nasser.[20] As a counterweight, Hussein and his cousin, King Faisal II of Hashemite Iraq, established the Arab Federation on 14 February 1958 in an Amman ceremony.[20] The two rival entities launched propaganda wars against each other through their radio broadcasts.[20] Jordanian and Syrian forces clashed in March along the border.[20] UAR-inspired conspiracies started to emerge against the Hashemite federation.[21] An officer in Jordan was arrested for plotting to assassinate Hussein.[20] It also emerged in Jordan that the UAR was planning to overthrow both Hashemite monarchies in July 1958.[20] Jordan reacted by arresting 40 suspected army officers, and Hussein called in Iraqi army chief of staff Rafiq Aref to brief him on the exposed plot.[20] Aref replied, "You look after yourselves. Iraq is a very stable country, unlike Jordan. If there are any worries it is Jordan that should be worried."[20] Although Faisal and Hussein enjoyed a very close relationship, Faisal's Iraqi entourage looked down on Jordan; Hussein attributed this attitude to Iraqi crown prince 'Abd al-Ilah's influence.[20] Hussein with his cousin King Faisal II (left) of the Kingdom of Iraq, 1957. In February 1958, the two Hashemite Kingdoms formed the Arab Federation that lasted until Faisal was deposed in a bloody coup on 14 July 1958.The Lebanese, pro-Western government of Camille Chamoun was also threatened to be toppled by growing UAR-supported domestic opposition groups.[22] The Iraqis sent a brigade to Jordan on 13 July at Hussein's request.[22] The Iraqi brigade's departure to Jordan gave the conspirators in Iraq, led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim, the opportunity to strike.[22] On 14 July, an Iraqi unit stormed the royal palace in Iraq, executed all members of the Iraqi royal family, and mutilated the bodies of the crown prince and the Iraqi Prime Minister of the Arab Federation, Nuri Al-Said.[22] Devastated, Hussein ordered a Jordanian expedition led by Sharif Nasser to reclaim the Iraqi throne,[22] but it was recalled after it was 150-mile (241 km) inside Iraq.[22] Hussein, worried about a similar coup in Jordan, tightened martial law.[22] American troops landed in both Lebanon and Jordan as a show of support for pro-Western regimes in the region against the Nasserist tide.[22] By October, the situation had calmed, and Western troops were recalled.[22] Hussein went on a vacation to Switzerland on 10 November. As he was flying his own plane over Syria, it was intercepted by two Syrian jets that attempted to attack.[22] Hussein outmaneuvered the Syrians and survived the assassination attempt, landing safely in Amman, where he received a hero's welcome – his popularity in Jordan skyrocketed overnight.[22] Golda Meir, an Israeli politician who would later become prime minister, was reported in 1958 as saying: "We all pray three times a day for King Hussein's safety and success."[22] The Israelis preferred that Hussein remained in power, rather than a Nasserist regime.[22] In 1959, Hussein embarked on a tour to different countries to consolidate bilateral ties.[23] His visit to the United States gained him many friends in Congress after he spoke openly against Soviet influence in the Middle East, returning with a $50 million aid package.[23] Sadiq Al-Shar'a, an army general who accompanied Hussein to the United States, was found to have been plotting a coup against the monarchy.[23] News of the arrest of the conspiring officers in Jordan coincided with Hussein's visit to the US.[24] Hussein was tipped off to Al-Shar'a's involvement, but did not reveal it until they both landed back in Jordan.[23] Al-Shar'a was tried and received the death penalty; Hussein reduced his sentence to life imprisonment.[23] Four years later, Al-Shar'a was pardoned and appointed director of Jordan's passport office.[23] Assassination attemptsHazza' Majali was appointed by Hussein to form a government; it consisted of loyalists who had persuaded Hussein to launch an offensive against the Iraqi government to restore the Hashemite monarchy.[25] The expedition was cancelled amid British opposition and the weakened state of the Royal Jordanian Air Force.[25] UAR agents assassinated Prime Minister Majali with a bomb planted in his office. Twenty minutes later, another explosion went off;[25] it was intended for Hussein as it was expected he would run to the scene, which he did – he was a few minutes late.[25] Hussein, persuaded by Habis Majali, Hazza's cousin and the army chief of staff, prepared for a retaliation against Syria, whose intelligence service was responsible for the assassination.[25] He prepared three brigades in the north, but the operation was called off after combined pressures from the Americans and the British.[25] Egyptian radios denounced Hussein as the "Judas of the Arabs."[25] Smoke rising out of the Jordanian Prime Ministry building after the explosion that killed Prime Minister Hazza' Majali on 29 August 1960.Hussein would be subjected to several more assassination attempts.[25] One involved replacing his nose drops with strong acid. Another plot was uncovered after a large number of cats were found dead in the royal palace; it emerged that the cook had been trying poisons to use against the king.[25] He was later pardoned and released after Hussein received a plea from the cook's daughter.[25] Assassination attempts against the king subsided after a successful coup toppled the Syrian regime on 28 September 1961 and the UAR collapsed.[25] With a calmed situation in Jordan, the King issued his slogan "Let us build this country to serve this nation."[25] But critics considered the slogan mere lip service, saying Hussein showed little interest in the economic situation of the country, unlike the military and foreign relations aspects.[25] In January 1962 Wasfi Tal was appointed prime minister.[26] The young politician who worked to bring sweeping reforms resigned after Hussein sought to solidify his position following the rise of the Nasser-supporting Ba'ath party to the governments of Iraq and Syria in two 1963 coups.[26] The first direct contacts between Jordan and Israel started in early 1960s; Hussein had a Jewish doctor named Emmanuel Herbert who acted as intermediary between the two nations during Hussein's visits to London.[26] In the talks, Hussein highlighted his commitment to a peaceful resolution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[26] His secret rapprochement with Israel was followed by a public rapprochement with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1964, which bolstered Hussein's popularity both in Jordan and in the Arab world.[26] Hussein received a warm welcome after visiting West Bank cities afterwards.[26] The rapprochement with Nasser happened during the 1964 Arab League summit in Cairo, where the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) were established, and where Jordan agreed to join the United Arab Command.[26] During the summit Nasser also attempted to convince Hussein to purchase Soviet weapons, but the Americans provided Hussein with tanks and jets instead, with the understanding that they would not be used in the West Bank at Israel's request.[26] The PLO identified itself as a representative of the Palestinian people, which clashed with Jordan's sovereignty claim over the West Bank.[26] The PLO started to demand that the Jordanian government legalize their activities, including the setting up of Palestinian armed units to fight Israel; the requests were denied.[26] Samu IncidentMain article: Samu Incident King Hussein and Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser at the 1964 Arab League Summit in Egypt, 11 September 1964Hussein later stated that during one of his meetings with Israeli representatives: "I told them I could not absorb a serious retaliatory raid, and they accepted the logic of this and promised there would never be one."[27] The Palestinian nationalist organization Fatah started organizing cross-border attacks against Israel in January 1965, often drawing Israeli reprisals on Jordan.[28] One such reprisal was the Samu Incident, an attack launched by Israel on 13 November 1966 on the Jordanian-controlled West Bank town of As-Samu after three Israeli soldiers were killed by a Fatah landmine.[29] The assault inflicted heavy Arab casualties.[29] Israeli writer Avi Shlaim argues that Israel's disproportionate retaliation exacted revenge on the wrong party, as Israeli leaders knew from their coordination with Hussein that he was doing everything he could to prevent such attacks.[29] The incident drew fierce local criticism of Hussein amid feelings he had been betrayed by the Israelis; Hussein also suspected that Israel had changed its attitude towards Jordan and had intended to escalate matters in order to capture the West Bank.[29] Yitzhak Rabin, the then Israel Defense Forces chief of staff, later admitted the disproportionate reaction by Israel, and that the operation would have been better directed at Syria, which was supporting such attacks: "We had neither political nor military reasons to arrive at a confrontation with Jordan or to humiliate Hussein."[29] If we look at water, it was a problem that both of us suffered from. If we look at even a flu epidemic, it affected both of us. Every aspect of life was interrelated and interlinked in some way or another. And to simply ignore that was something I could not understand. Maybe others could, others who were distant, who were not equally aware or involved. By now there were Palestinians and Jordanians, and their rights, their future was at stake. One had to do something; one had to explore what was possible and what was not. Hussein recounting his secret meetings with Israeli representatives[30]The events at Samu triggered large-scale anti-Hashemite protests in the West Bank for what they perceived as Hussein's incompetency for defending them against Israel: rioters attacked government offices, chanted pro-Nasser slogans, and called on Hussein to have the same fate as Nuri As-Said – the Iraqi prime minister who had been killed and mutilated in 1958 along with the Iraqi royal family.[31] Jordanians believed that after this incident, Israel would march on the West Bank whether or not Jordan joined the war.[31] Perception of King Hussein's efforts to come to peaceful terms with Israel led to great dissatisfaction among some Arab leaders.[32] President Nasser of Egypt denounced Hussein as an "imperialist lackey."[32] In a meeting with American officials, Hussein, sometimes with tears in his eyes, said: "The growing split between the East Bank and the West Bank has ruined my dreams," and, "There is near despair in the army and the army no longer has confidence in me."[31] Hussein travelled to Cairo on 30 May 1967 and hastily signed an Egyptian-Jordanian mutual defense treaty, returning home to cheering crowds.[33] Shlaim argues that Hussein had possessed options, but had made two mistakes: the first was in putting the Jordanian army under Egyptian command; the second was in allowing the entry of Iraqi troops into Jordan, which raised Israeli suspicions against Jordan.[31] Egyptian general Abdul Munim Riad arrived in Jordan to command its army pursuant to the pact signed with Egypt.[31] Six-Day WarMain article: Six-Day War Hussein flying over the Dome of the Rock in East Jerusalem when the West Bank was under Jordanian control, 1964On 5 June 1967 the Six-Day War began after an Israeli strike wiped out Egypt's Air Force.[34] The Egyptian army commander in Cairo transmitted to General Riad that the Israeli strike had failed, and that Israel's Air Force was almost wiped out.[34] Based on the misleading information from Cairo, Riad ordered the Jordanian army to take offensive positions and attack Israeli targets around Jerusalem.[34] Jordanian Hawker Hunters made sorties but were destroyed by Israel when they went to refuel; Syria's and Iraq's air forces followed.[34] Israel's air superiority on the first day of war proved decisive.[34] Two Israeli jets attempted to assassinate Hussein; one was shot down by anti-aircraft artillery, and the other shot directly at Hussein's office in the royal palace.[34] Hussein was not there, the CIA station chief in Amman Jack O'Connell relayed a message threatening the Israelis, and the attempts stopped.[34] The Jordanians had prepared a war strategy, but the Egyptian commander insisted to build his strategy based on the misleading information from Egypt.[34] By 7 June fighting led the Jordanians to withdraw from the West Bank, and Jerusalem's Old City and the Dome of the Rock were abandoned after desperate fighting.[35] Israel blew up the bridges between the two banks to consolidate its control.[35] Jordan suffered a severe setback with the loss of the West Bank, which contributed 40% to Jordan's GDP in the tourism, industrial, and agricultural sectors.[35] Around 200,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Jordan, destabilizing Jordan's demographics.[35] The loss of Jerusalem was critical to Jordan, and specifically for Hussein who held the Hashemite custodianship of Muslim and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem.[35] Al-Aqsa mosque is the third holiest site in Islam, believed to be where Muhammad ascended to heaven.[35] By 11 June Israel had decisively won the war by capturing the West Bank from Jordan, Gaza and the Sinai from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.[35] Nasser and Hussein, recognizing their defeat, sought to work together towards a more moderate stance.[35] On 22 November 1967 the United Nations Security Council unanimously approved resolution 242, which became one of Jordan's foreign policy cornerstones.[36] It denounced acquisition of territory by force and called on Israel to withdraw from territories occupied in the 1967 war.[36] Israel rejected the resolution.[36] Hussein restarted talks with Israeli representatives throughout 1968 and 1969, but the talks went nowhere – Shlaim claims the Israelis stalled and that Hussein refused to cede any West Bank territory.[36] Black SeptemberMain articles: Battle of Karameh, Black September, and King Hussein's federation plan Hussein after checking an abandoned Israeli tank in the aftermath of the Battle of Karameh, 21 March 1968.After Jordan lost control of the West Bank in 1967, Palestinian fighters known as "fedayeen", meaning self-sacrificers, moved their bases to Jordan and stepped up their attacks on Israel and Israeli occupied territories.[37] One Israeli retaliation on a PLO camp based in Karameh, a Jordanian town along the border with the West Bank, developed into a full-scale battle.[37] It is believed that Israel had wanted to punish Jordan for its perceived support for the PLO.[38] After failing to capture Yasser Arafat, the PLO leader, Israeli forces withdrew or were repulsed, but not before destroying the Karameh camp[39] and sustaining relatively high casualties.[40] The perceived joint Jordanian-Palestinian victory in the 1968 Battle of Karameh led to an upsurge of support in the Arab World for Palestinian fighters in Jordan.[41] The PLO in Jordan grew in strength, and by the beginning of 1970 the fedayeen groups started to openly call for the overthrow of the Hashemite monarchy.[37] Acting as a state within a state, the fedayeen disregarded local laws and regulations, and even attempted to assassinate King Hussein twice, leading to violent confrontations between them and the Jordanian army.[37] Hussein wanted to oust the fedayeen from the country, but hesitated to strike because he did not want his enemies to use it against him by equating Palestinian fighters with civilians.[37] PLO actions in Jordan culminated in the Dawson's Field hijackings incident on 10 September 1970, in which the fedayeen hijacked three civilian aircraft and forced their landing in Zarqa, taking foreign nationals as hostages, and later bombing the planes in front of the international press.[37] Hussein saw this as the last straw, and ordered the army to move.[37] On 17 September the Jordanian army surrounded cities that had a PLO presence, including Amman and Irbid, and began shelling the fedayeen, who had established themselves in Palestinian refugee camps.[37] The next day, a force from Syria with PLO markings started advancing towards Irbid, which the fedayeen declared a "liberated" city.[37] On 22 September, the Syrians withdrew after the Jordanian army launched an air-ground offensive that inflicted heavy Syrian losses, and after Israeli Air Force jets flew over Syrian units in a symbolic show of support of Hussein, but did not engage.[37] An agreement brokered by Egyptian President Nasser between Arafat and Hussein led to an end to the fighting on 27 September. Nasser died the following day of a heart attack.[37] On 13 October Hussein signed an agreement with Arafat to regulate the fedayeen's presence,[37] but the Jordanian army attacked again in January 1971.[37] The fedayeen were driven out of Jordanian cities one by one until 2,000 fedayeen surrendered after being encircled in a forest near Ajloun on 17 July, marking the end of the conflict.[37] Hussein in a meeting during Black September with Prime Minister Wasfi Tal (right) and Army Chief of Staff Habis Majali (left), 17 September 1970Jordan allowed the fedayeen to leave for Lebanon through Syria, an event that led to the Lebanese Civil War in 1975.[37] The Black September Organization was founded the same year, named after the conflict.[37] The organization claimed responsibility for the assassination of Jordanian prime minister Wasfi Tal in 1971, and the highly publicized 1972 Munich massacre against Israeli athletes.[37] In a speech to the Jordanian parliament on 15 March 1972, Hussein announced his "United Arab Kingdom" plan.[42] Unlike the unitary state that had existed between the West Bank and Jordan during Jordan's annexation of the West Bank (1950–1967), this plan envisaged two federal entities on each bank of the Jordan River.[42] According to the proposal, the two districts of the federation would be autonomous, excluding the military and the foreign and security affairs that would be determined by an Amman central government.[42] But the implementation of the plan was to be conditional upon achieving a peace agreement between Israel and Jordan.[42] Ultimately, Hussein's proposal was ruled out after it was vehemently rejected by Israel, the PLO, and several Arab states.[42] Yom Kippur WarMain article: Yom Kippur WarAfter the 1967 war, Gunnar Jarring was appointed by the UN as a special envoy for the Middle East peace process, leading the Jarring Mission.[43] The talks between Arab countries and Israel resulted in a deadlock.[43] The stalemate led to renewed fears of another war between Arab countries and Israel.[44] Worried that Jordan would be dragged into another war unprepared, Hussein sent Zaid Al-Rifai to Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in December 1972 to inquire.[44] Sadat informed Al-Rifai that he had been planning a limited incursion in the Sinai that would allow some political manoeuvring.[44] Sadat then invited Al-Rifai and Hussein to a summit on 10 September 1973 with him and Hafez Al-Assad, who had become president of Syria.[44] The summit ended with a restoration of ties between Jordan, Egypt, and Syria.[44] Sadat disclosed to Assad and Hussein his intention to initiate military action.[44] Hussein refused Sadat's request to allow the fedayeen's return to Jordan but agreed that in case of a military operation, Jordanian troops would play a limited defensive role in assisting the Syrians in the Golan Heights.[44] Hussein addressing crowds in Mafraq through his car's megaphone, 12 July 1974Egypt and Syria launched the Yom Kippur War against Israel in the Sinai and in the Golan Heights on 6 October 1973 without Hussein's knowledge.[45] Between 10 September and 6 October, Hussein secretly met with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir in Tel Aviv on 25 September. Israeli leaks of the meeting led to rumors in the Arab World that Hussein had tipped off Meir about Arab intentions.[46] Hussein only discussed with Meir what both already knew, that the Syrian army was on alert.[45] On 13 October Jordan joined the war and sent the 40th brigade to assist the Syrians in the Golan Heights.[47] Some see it as ironic that it was the same brigade that had been sent to deter the Syrian invasion during Black September in 1970.[45] Subsequent peace talks with Israel collapsed; while Jordan wanted a complete Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank, Israel preferred to retain control but with Jordanian administration.[47] In the 1974 Arab League summit held in Morocco on 26 October, a Fatah plot to assassinate Hussein upon his arrival was uncovered by the Moroccan authorities.[45] The plot did not deter Hussein from joining the summit, but at the end Jordan had to join all the Arab countries in recognizing the PLO as "the sole representative of the Palestinian people," a diplomatic defeat for Hussein.[45] The relationship between Jordan and the United States deteriorated when Jordan refused to join the Camp David Accords.[48] The Accords formed the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, and allowed the withdrawal of Israel from the Sinai.[48] In 1978 Hussein went to Baghdad for the first time since 1958; there, he met Iraqi politician Saddam Hussein.[48] When Saddam became president of Iraq in 1979, Hussein supported Saddam's Iran–Iraq War that stretched from 1980 to 1988.[48] The relationship grew as Saddam provided Jordan with subsidized oil, and Jordan allowed Iraq to use the Port of Aqaba for its exports.[48] Involvement in peace initiativesWhen the PLO moved to Lebanon from Jordan after 1970, repeated attacks and counter-attacks occurred in southern Lebanon between the PLO and Israel.[49] Two major Israeli incursions into Lebanon occurred in 1978, and the other in 1982, the latter conflict troubled Hussein as the IDF had laid siege to Beirut.[49] The PLO was to be expelled from Lebanon, and Ariel Sharon, the Israeli Defense minister, suggested they be moved to Jordan where the monarchy would be toppled and Jordan would serve as an "alternative Palestinian homeland."[49] Sharon boasted: "One speech by me will make King Hussein realize that the time has come to pack his bags."[49] However, Arafat rejected Sharon's suggestion, and the fedayeen were transported to Tunisia under American cover.[49] Hussein with American president Jimmy Carter, Iranian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Shahbanou Farah (from left to right), 31 December 1977In 1983 American president Ronald Reagan suggested a peace plan that became known as the Reagan plan, similar to Hussein's 1972 federation plan.[50] Hussein and Arafat both agreed to the plan on 1 April, but the PLO's executive office rejected it.[50] A year and a half later, a renewed effort by Hussein to jump start the peace process culminated in the establishment of a Jordan–PLO accord that sought a peaceful resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, an unprecedented milestone for the PLO and a Jordanian diplomatic victory.[50] The accord was opposed by Israel and garnered no international support from either the United States or the Soviet Union.[50] Around the same time, Hussein met Israel prime minister Shimon Peres on 19 July 1985 in the United Kingdom, where Peres assented to the accord, but later the rest of his government opposed it due to the PLO's involvement.[50] Subsequent talks between the PLO and Jordan collapsed after the PLO refused to make concessions; in a speech Hussein announced that "after two long attempts, I and the government of Jordan hereby announce that we are unable to continue to coordinate politically with the PLO leadership until such time as their word becomes their bond, characterized by commitment, credibility and constancy."[50] Jordan started a crackdown on the PLO by closing their offices in Amman after the Israeli minister of defense, Yitzhak Rabin, requested it from Hussein in a secret meeting.[50] Jordan announced a $1.3 billion five-year development plan for the West Bank, in a bid to enhance its image in the West Bank residents at the expense of the PLO.[50] Around the same time, Hussein became troubled after he heard that Israel had been selling American weapons to Iran, thereby lengthening the conflict between Iraq and Iran, both supporters of the PLO.[50] The relationship between Hussein and Saddam became very close – Hussein visited Baghdad 61 times between 1980 and 1990,[50] and Saddam used Hussein to relay messages to several countries, including the US and Britain.[50] In June 1982, after Iran's victory seemed imminent, Hussein personally carried to Saddam sensitive photographic intelligence forwarded to him by the US.[50] In return, Saddam provided incentives for Jordanian exports to Iraq, which accounted for a quarter of all Jordan's exports, valued at $212.3 million in 1989.[50] Iraqi aid helped Jordan's finances; Hussein had felt it humiliating to keep asking Gulf countries for assistance.[50] Hussein made a little-known attempt to heal the rift between the two Ba'ath regimes of Iraq and Syria in April 1986.[50] The meeting between Hafez Al-Assad and Saddam Hussein occurred at an airbase in Al-Jafr in the eastern Jordanian desert.[50] The talks lasted for a day, after which no progress was made.[50] Saddam was angry at Al-Assad for supporting Iran against an Arab country, Iraq,[50] and Al-Assad was adamant about establishing a union between Iraq and Syria, which Saddam rejected.[50] On 11 April 1987, after Yitzhak Shamir became prime minister of Israel, Hussein engaged in direct talks with Shamir's foreign minister, Peres, in London.[51] After reaching an agreement between Hussein and Peres on establishing an international peace conference, Shamir and the rest of the ministers in his cabinet rejected the proposal.[51] On 8 November 1987 Jordan hosted an Arab League summit; Hussein enjoyed good relations with rival Arab blocs, and he acted as conciliatory intermediate.[51] He helped mobilize Arab support for Iraq against Iran, and for Jordan's peace efforts, and helped to end the decade-long Arab boycott of Egypt – a boycott that began after it unilaterally signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979.[51] Hussein described the summit as one of the best moments in his life.[51] Disengagement from West BankMain article: Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank Hussein flying an airplane with Brunei Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, 1984On 9 December 1987 an Israeli truck driver ran over four Palestinians in a Gaza refugee camp, sparking unrest that spread to violent demonstrations in the West Bank.[52] What began as an uprising to achieve Palestinian independence against the Israeli occupation turned into an upsurge of support for the PLO, which had orchestrated the uprising, and consequently diminished Jordanian influence in the West Bank.[52] Jordanian policy on the West Bank had to be reconsidered following renewed fears that Israel would revive its proposal for Jordan to become an "alternative Palestinian homeland."[52] US Secretary of State George P. Shultz set up a peace process that became known as the Schulz Initiative.[52] It called for Jordan rather than the PLO to represent the Palestinians; however, when Schultz contacted Hussein about the plan, he reversed his position and told him it was a matter for the PLO to decide.[52] The orchestrators of the Intifada were the Unified National Leadership of the Uprising, which issued its 10th communiqué on 11 March 1988, urging its followers to "intensify the mass pressure against the [Israel] occupation army and the settlers and against collaborators and personnel of the Jordanian regime."[52] West Bank Palestinians deviation from the Jordanian state highlighted the need for a revision in Jordan's policy, and Jordanian nationalists began to argue that Jordan would be better off without the Palestinians and without the West Bank.[52] Adnan Abu Oudeh, a Palestinian descendant who was Hussein's political advisor, Prime Minister Zaid Al-Rifai, army chief of staff Zaid ibn Shaker, Royal Court chief Marwan Kasim, and mukhabarat director Tariq Alaeddin, helped the King prepare West Bank disengagement plans.[52] The Jordanian Ministry of Occupied Territories Affairs was abolished on 1 July 1988, its responsibilities taken over by the Palestinian Affairs Department.[52] On 28 July Jordan terminated the West Bank development plan.[53] Two days later a royal decree dissolved the House of Representatives, thereby removing West Bank representation in the Parliament.[52] In a televised speech on 1 August, Hussein announced the "severing of Jordan's legal and administrative ties with the West Bank," essentially surrendering claims of sovereignty over the West Bank.[54] The move revoked the Jordanian citizenship of Palestinians in the West Bank (who had obtained it since Jordan annexed the territory in 1950), but not that of Palestinians residing in Jordan.[52] Nevertheless, the Hashemite custodianship over the Muslim and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem was retained.[52] Israeli politicians were stunned, thinking it was a political manoeuvre so that the Palestinians could show support for Hussein, but later realized that it represented a shift in Jordan's policy after Hussein asked his West Bank supporters not to issue petitions demanding that he relent.[52] In a meeting in November 1988 the PLO accepted all United Nations resolutions and agreed to recognize Israel.[52] 1989 riotsMain article: 1989 Jordanian protestsJordan's disengagement from the West Bank led to a slowing of the Jordanian economy.[55] The Jordanian dinar lost a third of its value in 1988, and Jordan's foreign debt reached a figure double that of its gross national product (GNP).[55] Jordan introduced austerity measures to combat the economic crisis.[56] On 16 April 1989 the government increased prices of gasoline, licensing fees, alcoholic beverages, and cigarettes, between 15% and 50%, in a bid to increase revenues in accordance with an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[56] The IMF agreement was to enable Jordan to reschedule its $6 billion debt, and obtain loans totaling $275 million over 18 months.[56] On 18 April riots in Ma'an spread to other southern towns such as Al-Karak and Tafila, where the New York Times reported that around 4,000 people gathered in the streets and clashed with the police,[56] resulting in six protesters killed and 42 injured, and two policemen killed and 47 injured.[57] Despite the fact that the protests were triggered by a troubling economic situation, the crowds' demands became political.[55] Protesters accused Zaid Al-Rifai's government of rampant corruption and demanded that the martial law in place since 1957 be lifted and parliamentary elections be resumed.[55] The last parliamentary election had taken place in 1967, just before Jordan lost the West Bank, and when the parliament's tenure ended in 1971, no elections could be held due to the fact that the West Bank was under Israeli occupation, but the West Bank's status became irrelevant after Jordan's disengagement in 1988.[55] Hussein relented to the demands by dismissing Al-Rifai, and appointed Zaid ibn Shaker to form a new government.[55] In 1986 a new electoral law was passed, which allowed the reintroduction of parliamentary elections to proceed smoothly.[55] The cabinet passed amendments to the electoral law that removed articles dealing with West Bank representation.[55] In May 1989, just before the elections, Hussein announced his intention to appoint a 60-person royal commission to draft a reformist document named the National Charter.[55] The National Charter sought to set a timetable for democratization acts.[55] Although most members of the commission were regime loyalists, it included a number of opposition figures and dissidents.[55] Parliamentary elections were held on 8 November 1989, the first in 22 years.[58] The National Charter was drafted and ratified by parliament in 1991.[55] Gulf WarMain article: Gulf WarA UN-brokered ceasefire became active in July 1988, ending the Iran-Iraq war.[59] Hussein had advised Saddam after 1988 to polish his image in the West by visiting other countries, and by appearing at the United Nations for a speech, but to no avail.[60] The Iraqi-Jordanian relationship developed into the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), which also included Egypt and Yemen, on 16 February 1989, serving as a counter to the Gulf Cooperation Council.[60] Saddam's invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 led six months later to international intervention to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait in what became known as the Gulf War.[60] Iraq's invasion of Kuwait caught Hussein by surprise; he was the ACC chairman at that time, and a personal friend of Saddam's.[60] After informing the American president George H. W. Bush of his intention to travel to Baghdad to contain the situation,[60] Hussein travelled to Baghdad on 3 August for a meeting with Saddam; at the meeting, the latter announced his intention to withdraw Iraqi troops from Kuwait only if Arab governments refrained from issuing statements of condemnation, and no foreign troops were involved.[60] On Hussein's way back from Baghdad, Egypt issued a condemnation of the Iraqi invasion.[60] To Hussein's dismay, Egyptian president Husni Mubarak refused to reverse his position and called for Iraq's unconditional withdrawal from Kuwait.[60] An Arab League summit held in Cairo issued a condemnation of Iraq with a fourteen-vote majority, despite calls by Jordan's foreign minister Marwan Al-Kasim that this move would hinder Hussein's efforts to reach a peaceful resolution.[60] Both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia viewed Hussein with suspicion – they distrusted him and believed he was planning to obtain a share of Kuwait's wealth.[60] Hussein meeting with American president George H. W. Bush on 12 March 1992On 6 August American troops arrived at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabian border, Saddam's conditions were ignored, and Hussein's role as mediator was undermined.[61] Saddam then announced that his invasion had become "irreversible," and on 8 August he annexed Kuwait.[61] Jordan, along with the international community, refused to recognize the Iraqi-installed regime in Kuwait.[61] The United States, seeing Jordan's neutrality as siding with Saddam, cut its aid to Jordan – aid on which Jordan depended; Gulf countries soon followed.[61] Hussein's position in the international community was severely affected, so severe that he privately discussed his intention to abdicate.[61] Jordan's public opinion was overwhelmingly against international intervention, and against Gulf rulers who were perceived to be greedy and corrupt.[61] Hussein's popularity among Jordanians reached its zenith, and anti-Western demonstrations filled the streets.[61] But Western pundits viewed Hussein's actions as impulsive and emotional, claiming that he could have dampened Jordanian public support for Iraq through better leadership.[61] Hussein's brother, Crown Prince Hassan, also disagreed with Hussein, but the King refused to recognize Saddam's wrongdoings.[61] In late August and early September Hussein visited twelve Western and Arab capitals in an effort to promote a peaceful resolution.[61] He finished his tour by flying directly to Baghdad to meet Saddam, where he warned: "Make a brave decision and withdraw your forces; if you don't, you will be forced out."[61] Saddam was adamant but agreed to Hussein's request to release Western nationals who were being held as hostages.[61] Threats of a war between Israel and Iraq were rising, and in December 1990 Hussein relayed a message to Saddam saying that Jordan would not tolerate any violations of its territory.[61] Jordan dispatched an armored division to its borders with Iraq, and Hussein's eldest son Abdullah was in charge of a Cobra helicopter squadron.[61] Jordan also concentrated its forces near its border with Israel.[61] Adding to Jordan's deteriorating situation was the arrival of 400,000 Palestinian refugees from Kuwait, who had all been working there.[61] By 28 February 1991 the international coalition had successfully cleared Iraqi forces from Kuwait.[61] Peace with IsraelMain article: Israel–Jordan peace treatyPeace demands no less courage than war. It is the courage to meet the adversary, his attitudes and arguments, the courage to face hardships, the courage to bury senseless illusions, the courage to surmount impeding obstacles, the courage to engage in a dialogue to tear down the walls of fear and suspicion. It is the courage to face reality. King Hussein during his address to the Jordanian Parliament in Amman on 12 October 1991[62]Jordan participated in the imposition of economic sanctions against Iraq even though the sanctions would severely affect its economy.[61] The effects of the Gulf War, the sanctions on Iraq, and the flow of refugees to Jordan were estimated by a UN report to be $1.5 billion out of a gross domestic product (GDP) of $4.2 billion in 1990, and $3.6 billion out of a GDP of $4.7 billion in 1991.[63] The end of the Gulf War coincided with the end of the Cold War.[63] This allowed the United States to play a more active role in solving the decades-long Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[63] The Bush administration were still angry at Hussein for the Gulf War events but realized they needed Jordan's participation in any peace process.[63] Hussein agreed to an American request to join an international peace conference so that Jordan could start repairing its relationship with the United States and end its political isolation.[63] Hussein's moves towards democratization in 1989 and his stance during the 1990 Gulf War had won him considerable popularity across Jordan's political spectrum.[63] But when Hussein replaced his conservative prime minister, Mudar Badran, with liberal Palestinian Taher Al-Masri, who was in favor of peace negotiations with Israel, the Muslim Brotherhood – Jordan's main opposition group, who at that time occupied 22 out of 80 seats in the House of Representatives, and whose members and support came mostly from Palestinians in the country – vehemently rejected the new prime minister by voting against him during the vote of confidence.[63] The Brotherhood also refused to participate in the National Congress where the King hoped to gather support for a peace settlement.[63] Hussein was tasked by the United States with forming a joint Palestinian-Jordanian delegation to participate in the Madrid Peace Conference.[63] The 28-member delegation consisted of 14 Jordanians and 14 Palestinians.[63] Along with solving the Palestinian problem, Jordan sought to safeguard its interests in relation to security, the economy, water, and the environment.[63] The peace conference convened on 30 October 1991, with delegations representing all parties to the conflict, the United States and the Soviet Union as co-sponsors, and the United Nations as observer.[63] The conference set a framework for negotiations, and PLO representatives offered to accept a Palestinian state under a confederation with Jordan.[63] At home, the Muslim Brotherhood considered Al-Masri and his government as too liberal, and the Brotherhood merged with independent Islamists and formed the Islamic Action Front (IAF), increasing its representation to 34 in the 80-member House of Representative, a force strong enough to bring down the royally appointed government with a motion of a vote of no confidence.[63] Hussein then replaced Al-Masri with his conservative cousin Zaid ibn Shaker.[63] Subsequent peace talks continued in Washington, D.C., stretching from December 1991 to September 1993.[63] Hussein shakes hands with Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin during the Washington declaration that ended the "state of belligerency" as American President Bill Clinton observes, 13 September 1994.Hussein could not participate in the details of the talks, a task he handed to his brother Hassan.[63] Hussein was referred to the Mayo Clinic in the United States after having urological problems; he had his left kidney removed after tests showed his ureter contained precancerous cells.[63] When Hussein went back healed to Jordan, he received a hero's welcome – a third of Jordan's population filled the streets to greet him.[63] On 23 November 1992 he gave an unusually aggressive speech.[63] He called on extremists on both the right and left of the political spectrum to end their opposition to the peace negotiations, denounced what he saw as the Gulf countries' undemocratic nature, and called on Saddam to introduce democracy to Iraq.[63] Meanwhile, Yitzhak Rabin, under the leftist Labor Party, emerged as prime minister of Israel.[63] Thus, the PLO and Israeli representatives were quick to reach an agreement, which culminated in the 1993 Oslo Accords.[63] The Accords were held in secrecy between Arafat and Rabin without Hussein's knowledge, completely marginalizing Jordan and the Palestinian-Jordanian delegation in Washington.[63] The parliamentary elections held on 8 November 1993 were the first multi-party elections since 1956, but the proportional representation voting system was replaced by the controversial one man, one vote system.[64] The latter system was introduced to limit the Islamist opposition's representation in the House of Representatives, by gerrymandering Palestinian majority areas and encouraging independents over partisan candidates.[64] Consequently, the IAF's seats decreased from 34 to 21 seats out of 80.[64] On 25 July 1994 Rabin and Hussein appeared at the White House and signed the Washington declaration, which announced the "end of the state of belligerency."[64] Subsequent negotiations culminated in the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, signed on 26 October in a ceremony in Wadi Araba.[64] The treaty was a culmination of over 58 secret meetings over 31 years between Hussein and Israeli leaders.[64] The treaty recognized Jordan's role in Jerusalem's holy sites, which angered Arafat who had sought such a position.[64] Jordan's relations with the United States greatly improved: $700 million worth of Jordan's debt was forgiven by the United States Congress, and Bill Clinton's administration authorized a substantial flow of aid to Jordan.[64] After 1995 Hussein became increasingly critical of Saddam's rule in Iraq.[64] On 4 November 1995 the Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a Jewish extremist, who aimed to undermine Rabin's peace efforts with the Palestinians.[64] Due to the close relationship forged with Rabin during the negotiations of the treaty, Hussein was invited to give a speech during Rabin's funeral in Jerusalem.[64] This was the first time Hussein had been in Jerusalem since the 1967 war.[64] Hussein drew parallels between Rabin's assassination and his grandfather's assassination in 1951: "We are not ashamed, nor are we afraid, nor are we anything but determined to continue the legacy for which my friend fell, as did my grandfather in this city when I was with him and but a boy."[64] Jordan's signing of a peace treaty with Israel, and other issues, were met with disdain by Syria's president Hafez Al-Assad.[65] The CIA handed the King a detailed report in December 1995 warning him of a Syrian plot to assassinate him and his brother Hassan.[65] A month later, the CIA sent Hussein another report warning Jordan of Iraqi plots to attack Western targets in Jordan to undermine Jordan's security due to its support for the Iraqi opposition.[65] In Israel, Shimon Peres of the leftist Labor Party and Benjamin Netanyahu of the right-wing Likud party, were competing for the post of prime minister.[65] Hussein's popularity in Israel had peaked after the peace treaty was signed, and he was expected to express support for a candidate.[65] Hussein initially remained neutral, but later expressed support for Netanyahu.[65] Efraim Halevy, then head of the Israeli intelligence agency (Mossad), claims that Hussein had preferred Netanyahu over Peres as he had deeply mistrusted the latter.[66] The Israeli general election held on 29 May 1996 witnessed Netanyahu's ascension to the prime ministry.[65] Tensions with IsraelMain article: Island of Peace massacre Hussein during a press conference at the White House with American secretary of Defense William Cohen, 2 April 1997Hussein's support for Netanyahu soon backfired.[67] Israel's actions during the 1996 Qana massacre in Southern Lebanon, the Likud government's decision to build settlements in East Jerusalem, and the events at the Temple Mount where clashes between Palestinian and Israeli police ensued after Israeli tunnel diggings around the Mount, generated an uproar of criticism for Netanyahu in the Arab World.[67] On 9 March 1997 Hussein sent Netanyahu a three-page letter expressing his disappointment.[67] The King lambasted Netanyahu, with the letter's opening sentence stating: "My distress is genuine and deep over the accumulating tragic actions which you have initiated at the head of the Government of Israel, making peace – the worthiest objective of my life – appear more and more like a distant elusive mirage."[68] Four days later, on 13 March, a Jordanian soldier patrolling the borders between Jordan and Israel in the north near the Island of Peace, killed seven Israeli schoolgirls and wounded six others.[67] The King, who was on an official visit to Spain, returned home immediately.[67] He travelled to the Israeli town of Beit Shemesh to offer his condolences to the grieving families of the Israeli children killed.[67] He went on his knees in front of the families, telling them that the incident was "a crime that is a shame for all of us. I feel as if I have lost a child of my own. If there is any purpose in life it will be to make sure that all the children no longer suffer the way our generation did."[69] His gesture was received very warmly in Israel, and Hussein sent the families $1 million in total as compensation for the loss of life.[67] The soldier was determined to be mentally unstable by a Jordanian military tribunal and was sentenced to 20 years in prison, which he served entirely.[67] Clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinian groups in Gaza and the West Bank surfaced.[67] Hussein's wife, Queen Noor, later claimed her husband was having trouble sleeping: "Everything he had worked for all his life, every relationship he had painstakingly built on trust and respect, every dream of peace and prosperity he had had for Jordan's children, was turning into a nightmare. I really did not know how much more Hussein could take."[67] On 27 September 1997 eight Mossad agents entered Jordan using fake Canadian passports and attempted to assassinate Jordanian citizen Khaled Mashal, head of the Palestinian group Hamas.[67] Hussein was preparing for a 30-year Hamas-Israel truce three days prior to the attempt, after Hamas had launched two attacks in Jerusalem.[67] Two Mossad agents followed Mashal to his office and injected poison into his ears, but they were caught by Mashal's bodyguard.[67] The two agents were then held by the Jordanian police, while the six other agents hid in the Israeli embassy.[67] Furious, Hussein met with an Israeli delegate who attempted to explain the situation; the King said in a speech about the incident that he felt that somebody "had spat in his face."[67] Jordanian authorities requested Netanyahu to provide an antidote to save Mashal's life, but Netanyahu refused to do so.[67] Jordan then threatened to storm the Israeli embassy and capture the rest of the Mossad team, but Israel argued that it would be against the Geneva Conventions.[67] Jordan replied that the Geneva Conventions "do not apply to terrorists," and a special operations team headed by Hussein's son Abdullah was put in charge of the operation.[67] Hussein called American President Clinton and requested his intervention, threatening to annul the treaty if Israel did not provide the antidote.[67] Clinton later managed to get Israel's approval to reveal the name of the antidote, and complained about Netanyahu: "This man is impossible!"[67] Khaled Mashal recovered, but Jordan's relations with Israel deteriorated and Israeli requests to contact Hussein were rebuffed.[67] The Mossad operatives were released by Jordan after Israel agreed to release 23 Jordanian and 50 Palestinian prisoners including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin.[67] Mounting opposition in Jordan to the peace treaty with Israel led Hussein to put greater restrictions on freedom of speech.[67] Several dissidents were imprisoned including Laith Shubeilat, a prominent Islamist. A few months into his imprisonment, the King personally gave Shubeilat, his fiercest critic, a ride home from the Swaqa prison.[70] However, the crackdown led the opposition groups in Jordan to boycott the 1997 parliamentary elections.[67] In 1998 Jordan refused a secret request from Netanyahu to attack Iraq using Jordanian airspace after claiming Saddam held weapons of mass destruction.[67] Illness, death and funeralMain article: Death and state funeral of Hussein of Jordan Royal Jordanian 1 is escorted on 4 February 1999 by an F-16 of the Minnesota Air National Guard during King Hussein's return to Jordan. He died 3 days later.In May 1998 Hussein, a heavy smoker, was admitted to the Mayo Clinic, but doctors were unable to diagnose his ailment.[71] Hussein returned to the clinic in July after suffering severe fevers; doctors then diagnosed him with Non-Hodgkin lymphoma.[71] He stayed in the clinic until the end of 1998, while his brother Hassan, who had been crown prince since 1965, acted as regent.[71] He was given six courses of chemotherapy for his lymph gland cancer over a five-month period.[71] Hussein gained the respect of the Mayo Clinic staff for his warmth and kindness; on one occasion, a janitor cried uncontrollably after Hussein prepared a birthday party for her in his suite.[72] In October 1998 Bill Clinton invited Hussein, during his stay at the clinic for chemotherapy treatment, to attend the Wye Plantation talks after a stalemate was reached between the Israeli and Palestinian delegations.[73] Hussein, who looked bald and weakened, arrived and urged both Arafat and Netanyahu to overcome the obstacles.[73] Encouraged by his presence, the two leaders agreed to resolve their difficulties.[73] Hussein received a standing ovation at the ceremony and praise from Clinton for interrupting his treatment and coming over.[73] At home, 1998 was a difficult year for Jordanians: GDP growth had slowed considerably and could not keep pace with an accelerating population growth.[72] Other incidents included a government scandal involving contamination of the country's water supply.[72] Samih Batikhi, the director of the General Intelligence Directorate (mukhabarat), visited Hussein during his stay at the Mayo Clinic to keep him updated.[72] Batikhi discredited the King's brother Hassan, and often voiced his support for Hussein's eldest son Abdullah as successor.[72] Abdullah, who was 36 years old at the time, enjoyed great support from the army.[72] He was crown prince when he was born in 1962, but Hussein transferred the title to his brother Hassan in 1965 due to political uncertainty back then.[72] King Hussein had changed his line of succession a total of four times: "From his brother Muhammad, to his infant son Abdullah, to his second brother Hassan, and again to his then-grown-up son Abdullah."[74] On his way back to Jordan in January 1999, Hussein stopped in London.[75] Doctors advised him to rest and stay in England for a few weeks, as he was still too fragile to travel.[75] According to Jordanian government sources, Hussein stated that: I need very much to feel the warmth of my people around me, there is work to be done and I will get the strength from my people to finish the business.[76] Upon his arrival in Jordan, after a six-month medical absence from the country, he announced he was "completely cured."[77] Hussein returned and publicly criticized his brother Hassan's management of Jordanian internal affairs. He also accused him of abusing his powers as regent and crown prince.[77] On 24 January 1999, Hussein replaced Hassan with his son Abdullah as heir apparent.[77] Hassan gracefully accepted the King's decision on television, and congratulated his nephew Abdullah on his designation as crown prince.[78] Mourners line up along Zahran street in Amman on 8 February 1999 as royal motorcade transported King's coffin.On 25 January, the day after he proclaimed Abdullah as crown prince, Hussein returned abruptly to the United States, after experiencing fevers – a sign of recurrent lymphoma.[79] On Tuesday 2 February, the king received a bone marrow transplant, which failed. It was thereupon reported that Hussein had suffered internal organ failure, and was in critical condition.[79] On 4 February, and at his request, he was flown to Jordan where he arrived in a coma.[79] Fighter jets from several countries flew with his plane as it passed over their territories, including the United States, Britain, and Israel.[79] Hussein arrived at the King Hussein Medical Center in Amman where it was raining heavily, yet thousands flocked from all over Jordan and gathered at the main entrance.[80] The crowds chanted his name, some weeping, others holding his pictures.[80] At 11:43 on 7 February, Hussein was pronounced dead.[80] Hussein's flag-draped coffin, accompanied by honor guard troops wearing Keffiyeh, was taken on a 90-minute procession through the streets of the capital city of Amman.[81] An estimated 800,000 Jordanians braved chilly winds to bid their leader farewell. Riot police were stationed along the nine-mile-long route to try to hold back the crowds who scrambled for a glimpse of the coffin.[81] The UN General Assembly held an Emergency Special Session in "Tribute to the Memory of His Majesty the King of Jordan" on the same day.[82] The King's funeral was held in the Raghadan Palace. The funeral was the largest gathering of foreign leaders since 1995, and it was the first time that Syrian President Hafez Al-Assad was in the same room with Israeli statesmen.[81] Khaled Mashal was also in the same room as the Mossad leaders who had tried to assassinate him just two years earlier.[81] Four American presidents were present: Bill Clinton, George H.W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, and Gerald Ford.[81] Bill Clinton said about the funeral: "I don't think I have ever seen a greater outpouring of the world's appreciation and the world's love for a human being than I've seen today."[83] Hussein was succeeded as king by his eldest son, Abdullah II.[81] LegacyImageAll what we hope for is that a day will come, when we have all gone, when people will say that this man has tried, and his family tried. This is all there is to seek in this world. Quote by King Hussein a year before his death.[84]Israeli writer Avi Shlaim sees that the assassination of Hussein's grandfather King Abdullah I in Jerusalem was the most formative event in Hussein's life, as he had witnessed the event personally at the age of 15.[85] Two years later, the 17-year-old schoolboy would become King.[85] Hussein inherited the throne to a young Kingdom, whose neighbors questioned its legitimacy, along with the Jordanian-controlled West Bank.[85] From an early age he had to shoulder a heavy responsibility.[85] The Kingdom had few natural resources, and a large Palestinian refugee population.[85] He was able to gain his country considerable political weight on a global scale despite its limited potential.[85] In 1980, an Israeli intelligence report described Hussein to be as "a man trapped on a bridge burning at both ends, with crocodiles in the river beneath him."[86] Hussein was able to survive through four turbulent decades of the Arab-Israel conflict and the Cold War, successfully balancing pressures from Arab nationalists, Soviet Union, Western countries and Israel.[85] Hussein inaugurating a police station in Amman with Prime Minister Suleiman Nabulsi to his right, 24 December 1956Hussein considered the Palestinian issue to be the overriding national security issue, even after Jordan lost the West Bank in 1967 and after it renounced claims to it in 1988.[85] Initially, Hussein attempted to unite both banks of the Jordan River as one people, but with the formation of the PLO in the 1960s, it became difficult to maintain such a policy.[85] He was relentless in pursuit of peace, viewing that the only way to solve the conflict was by peaceful means, excluding his decision to join the war in 1967.[85] The decision cost him half his kingdom and his grandfather's legacy.[85] After the war he emerged as an advocate for Palestinian statehood.[85] After renouncing ties to the West Bank in 1988, he remained committed to solving the conflict.[85] His 58 secret meetings held with Israeli representatives since 1963 culminated in the signing of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994, which he considered to be his "crowning achievement."[85] Hussein's policy of co-opting the opposition was his most revered.[85] He was the region's longest reigning leader, even though he was subject to dozens of assassination attempts and plots to overthrow him.[85] He was known to pardon political opponents and dissidents, including those who had attempted to assassinate him.[85] He entrusted some of them with senior posts in the government.[85] On one occasion before his death, he gave his fiercest critic a ride home from prison after having ordered his release.[70] He was described as being a "benign authoritarian."[87] Hussein inaugurating the East Ghor Canal in 1961During his 46-year-reign, Hussein, who was seen as a charismatic, courageous, and humble leader, became widely known among Jordanians as the "builder king."[87] He turned the Kingdom from a backwater divided polity into a reasonably stable well-governed modern state.[88] By 1999 90% of Jordanians had been born during Hussein's reign.[87] From the very start, Hussein concentrated on building an economic and industrial infrastructure to stimulate the economy and raise the standard of living.[88] During the 1960s, Jordan's main industries – including phosphate, potash and cement – were developed, and the very first network of highways was built throughout the kingdom.[88] Social indicators reflect King Hussein's successes.[88] Whereas in 1950 water, sanitation, and electricity were available to only 10% of Jordanians, at the end of his rule these had reached 99% of the population.[88] In 1960 only 33% of Jordanians were literate; by 1996 this number had climbed to 85.5%.[88] In 1961 the average Jordanian consumed a daily intake of 2,198 calories; by 1992 this figure had increased by 37.5% to reach 3,022 calories.[88] UNICEF statistics show that between 1981 and 1991, Jordan had achieved the world's fastest annual rate of decline in infant mortality – from 70 deaths per 1,000 births in 1981 to 37 per 1,000 in 1991, a drop of over 47%.[88] Hussein established the Al-Amal medical center in 1997, a clinic specializing in cancer treatment in Jordan.[89] Renamed in 2002 to the King Hussein Cancer Center in honor of the late King, the center is a leading medical facility in the region, treating around 4,000 patients each year.[89] Criticism Hussein dancing the dabkeh with Bedouins in the Jordanian Badia, 1960The King disliked paperwork, and had no solid view for the economy.[85] He was dubbed the "fundraiser-in-chief": throughout his reign he managed to obtain foreign aid from different sources, leaving a legacy of a foreign aid-dependent Jordan.[85] British aid in the early 1950s, American aid from 1957 onwards, Gulf aid in the 1960s and 1970s, Arab League and Iraqi aid in the early 1980s, and, after formalizing peace with Israel, American aid in the 1990s.[85] He was also seen as too lenient toward some ministers who were alleged to be corrupt.[90] The price of establishing peace with Israel in 1994 he had to pay domestically, with mounting Jordanian opposition to Israel concentrating its criticism on the King.[85] The King reacted by introducing restrictions on freedom of speech, and changing the parliamentary electoral law into the one-man, one-vote system in a bid to increase representation of independent regime loyalists and tribal groups at the expense of Islamist and partisan candidates.[87] The moves impeded Jordan's path towards democracy that had started in 1956 and resumed in 1989.[87] In 1977, Bob Woodward of The Washington Post reported that King Hussein received funds from the CIA for 20 years. This money was used by the King to establish an intelligence service but was nevertheless criticized for being handled away from the government's supervision.[91] Personal lifeMarriages and issue King Hussein and Queen Dina at their wedding on 19 April 1955 at Raghadan Palace King Hussein and Princess Muna with their sons Prince Abdullah and Prince Faisal in 1964 Hussein preparing to fly a de Havilland Vampire aircraft, 1 January 1955King Hussein was less than seventeen years old, and unmarried, when he came to the throne of Jordan in 1952. He married four times. He had eleven acknowledged children, and one alleged illegitimate child. His wives and children were: Sharifa Dina bint Abdul-Hamid (1929–2019),[92] on 19 April 1955. She was an Egyptian-born third cousin of King Hussein's father, King Talal. She was a member of the Hashemite family like Hussein and a graduate of Cambridge University and former lecturer in English literature at Cairo University. The marriage was arranged. They separated in 1956 and were divorced in 1957, at which time Princess Dina became known as Her Royal Highness Princess Dina Abdul-Hamid of Jordan. She became an Egyptian citizen in 1963, and in October 1970, Princess Dina of Jordan married Lieut-Colonel Asad Sulayman Abd al-Qadir, alias Salah Ta'amari, a Palestinian guerrilla commando who became a high-ranking official in the Palestine Liberation Organization.Princess Alia bint Hussein (born in 1956). Married first to Nasser Wasfi Mirza, they have one child together, a son, Hussein. They divorced in 1987. She remarried in 1988 to Sayyid Mohammed Al-Saleh; they have two sons, Talal and Abdul-Hamid.[1]Antoinette Gardiner ("Toni Gardiner," born in 1941), on 25 May 1961, titled Princess Muna Al-Hussein from marriage. They met when she was working in a secretarial capacity on the sets of the film Lawrence of Arabia. An award-winning field hockey player and daughter of a British army officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Walter Percy Gardiner, she was given the title Her Royal Highness Princess Muna al-Hussein, retaining this title after they divorced on 21 December 1972.Abdullah II (born in 1962). The current King of Jordan.[93] Married to Rania Al-Yassin. They have four children: Crown Prince Hussein, Princess Iman, Princess Salma and Prince Hashem.[1]Prince Faisal bin Hussein (born in 1963). Lieutenant-General, former Commander of Royal Jordanian Air Force. Currently Deputy Supreme Commander of the Jordanian Armed Forces. Married first to Alia Tabbaa (now known as Princess Alia Tabbaa). They have four children: Princess Ayah, Prince Omar, and twins Princess Sara and Princess Aisha. They divorced in 2008. He remarried in 2010 to Sara Qabbani and divorced in 2013. He is now married to Zeina Lubadeh, with whom he has two sons, Prince Abdullah and Prince Muhammad.[1]Princess Aisha bint Hussein (born in 1968, twin with her sister Zein). Brigadier-General of Jordanian Armed Forces. Married to Zeid Juma, they have two children, a son, Aoun, and a daughter, Muna. They are now divorced. She married Ashraf Banayoti in 2016 and divorced him in the same year.[1]Princess Zein bint Hussein (born in 1968, twin with her sister Aisha). Married to Majdi Al-Saleh, they have two children: a son Jaafar and a daughter Jumana, and an adopted daughter called Tahani Al-Shawan.[1]Alia Bahauddin Toukan, Queen Alia Al-Hussein (1948–1977), on 24 December 1972. She died in a helicopter crash in Amman, Jordan, in 1977. Jordan's main international airport is named after her, (Queen Alia International Airport). An Egyptian-born daughter of Jordan's first ambassador to the United Nations, Sayyid Baha ud-din Toukan.Princess Haya bint Hussein (born in 1974). President of the Fédération Équestre Internationale 2008–2014.[94] Formerly married to Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and Ruler of Dubai. They have two children: Sheikha Jalila and Sheikh Zayed.[95]Prince Ali bin Hussein (born in 1975). Married to Rym Brahimi now known as Princess Rym al-Ali. They have two children, Princess Jalilah and Prince Abdullah.[1]Abir Muhaisen, (born in 1972, adopted by Hussein and Alia in 1976).[1]Lisa Najeeb Halaby (born in 1951), renamed Queen Noor Al-Hussein on her conversion to Islam, married in Amman on 15 June 1978.[1] An Arab-American of Syrian descent, daughter of Najeeb Halaby.Hamzah bin Hussein (born in 1980).[1] Married first to Princess Noor bint Asem, third daughter of Prince Asem bin Nayef, by his first wife, Princess Firouzeh Vokhshouri. Princess Noor became Princess Noor al-Hamzah upon her marriage. Together they have a daughter, Princess Haya. They divorced in 2009. He remarried in 2012 to Princess Basmah Bani Ahmad (née Al-Outom); they have four daughters and a son: Princess Zein, Princess Noor, Princess Badiya, Princess Nafisa and Prince Hussein.[1]Prince Hashim bin Hussein (born in 1981). Married to Princess Fahdah (née Abunayyan). They have three daughters and two sons: Princess Halaah, Princess Rayet Al-Noor, Princess Fatima Al-Alia, Prince Hussein Haidara and Prince Mohammad Al Hassan.[1]Princess Iman bint Hussein (born in 1983).[1] Married to Zaid Azmi Mirza, together they have a son, Omar.Princess Raiyah bint Hussein (born in 1986).[1] Married to Faris Ned Donovan.From an affair with the American Jewish actress Susan Cabot, Hussein allegedly had an illegitimate son, Timothy. Susan and Timothy were supported for many years out of the Jordanian royal privy purse.[96] In 1986, Timothy killed his mother. Timothy served a prison sentence for involuntary manslaughter and died in 2003.[97] InterestsHussein was an enthusiastic ham radio operator and an Honorary Member of The Radio Society of Harrow and a life member of the American Radio Relay League.[98] He was popular in the amateur radio community and insisted that fellow operators refer to him without his title.[99] His call sign was JY1, which inspired the name for Jordan's first cube-sat satellite, the JY1-SAT, which was launched in 2018.[100] Hussein was a trained pilot, flying both airplanes and helicopters as a hobby.[101] In a 1999 interview Henry Kissinger described being flown by Hussein, saying that "...he was a daring pilot, and he would be zooming along at treetop level, and my wife, in order to be politely insistent would say, 'You know I didn't know helicopters could fly so low.' 'Oh!' said the King, 'They can fly lower!' and went below tree top level just skimming along on the ground. That really aged me rapidly."[101] Hussein was also an avid fan of motorcycles.[101] The cover of the paperback version of Queen Noor's book Leap of Faith: Memoirs of an Unexpected Life features a photo of the King and Queen riding a Harley-Davidson motorcycle.[101] The King was also a fan of race-car driving, water sports, skiing, and tennis.[1] Military ranksKing Hussein I bin Talal I held the following ranks: Jordan:Jordan Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Jordanian Navy.Jordan Field Marshal, Royal Jordanian Army.Jordan Marshal of the Air Force, Royal Jordanian Air Force. Egypt:Egypt Honorary Field Marshal of the Egyptian Army – 21 February 1955. United Kingdom:United Kingdom Honorary Air Chief Marshal of the Royal Air Force – 19 July 1966[102]AncestryvteHashemites[103][104]Hashim(eponymous ancestor)Abd al-MuttalibAbu TalibAbdallahMuhammad(Islamic prophet)Ali(fourth caliph)FatimahHasan(fifth caliph)Hasan Al-Mu'thannaAbdullahMusa Al-DjawnAbdullahMusaMuhammadAbdullahAliSuleimanHusseinIssaAbd Al-KarimMuta'inIdrisQatada(Sharif of Mecca)AliHassan(Sharif of Mecca)Abu Numayy I(Sharif of Mecca)Rumaythah(Sharif of Mecca)'Ajlan(Sharif of Mecca)Hassan(Sharif of Mecca)Barakat I(Sharif of Mecca)Muhammad(Sharif of Mecca)Barakat II(Sharif of Mecca)Abu Numayy II(Sharif of Mecca)Hassan(Sharif of Mecca)Abdullah(Sharif of Mecca)HusseinAbdullahMuhsinAuon, Ra'i Al-HadalaAbdul Mu'eenMuhammad(Sharif of Mecca)AliMonarch Hussein(Sharif of Mecca King of Hejaz)Monarch Ali(King of Hejaz)Monarch Abdullah I(King of Jordan)Monarch Faisal I(King of Syria King of Iraq)Zeid(pretender to Iraq)'Abd Al-Ilah(Regent of Iraq)Monarch Talal(King of Jordan)Monarch Ghazi(King of Iraq)Ra'ad(pretender to Iraq)Monarch Hussein(King of Jordan)Monarch Faisal II(King of Iraq)ZeidMonarch Abdullah II(King of Jordan)Hussein(Crown Prince of Jordan) WritingsHussein of Jordan (1962). Uneasy Lies the Head. B. Geis Associates.Hussein of Jordan (1969). My War with Israel. Morrow.See also Abdullah II bin Al-Hussein (Arabic: عبدالله الثاني بن الحسين, romanized: ʿAbd Allāh aṯ-ṯānī ibn al-Ḥusayn; born 30 January 1962) is the current King of Jordan, having ascended the throne on 7 February 1999. He is a member of the Hashemite dynasty, who have been the reigning royal family of Jordan since 1921, and is considered a 41st-generation direct descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[1] Abdullah was born in Amman as the first child of King Hussein and his second wife, Princess Muna. As the king's eldest son, Abdullah was heir apparent until Hussein transferred the title to Abdullah's uncle Prince Hassan in 1965. Abdullah began his schooling in Amman, continuing his education abroad. He began his military career in 1980 as a training officer in the Jordanian Armed Forces, later assuming command of the country's Special Forces in 1994, eventually becoming a major general in 1998. In 1993 Abdullah married Rania Al-Yassin, with whom he has four children: Crown Prince Hussein, Princess Iman, Princess Salma and Prince Hashem. A few weeks before his death in 1999, King Hussein named Abdullah his heir, and Abdullah succeeded his father. Abdullah, a constitutional monarch with wide executive and legislative powers, liberalized the economy when he assumed the throne, and his reforms led to an economic boom which continued until 2008. During the following years Jordan's economy experienced hardship as it dealt with the effects of the Great Recession and spillover from the Arab Spring, including a cut in its petroleum supply and the collapse of trade with neighboring countries. In 2011, large-scale protests demanding reform erupted in the Arab world. Many of the protests led to civil wars in other countries, but Abdullah responded quickly to domestic unrest by replacing the government and introducing reforms to the constitution and laws governing public freedoms and elections. Proportional representation was introduced to the Jordanian parliament in the 2016 general election, a move which he said would eventually lead to establishing parliamentary governments. Government critics remained skeptical, criticizing the reforms as resembling cosmetic changes. They took place amid unprecedented challenges stemming from regional instability, including an influx of 1.4 million Syrian refugees[2] into the natural resources-lacking country and the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Abdullah is popular locally and internationally for maintaining Jordanian stability, and is known for promoting interfaith dialogue and a moderate understanding of Islam. The longest-serving current Arab leader, he was regarded by the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre as the most influential Muslim in the world in 2016[3] and ranked fifth in 2022[4] and 2023.[5] Abdullah is custodian of the Muslim and Christian sacred sites in Jerusalem, a position held by his dynasty since 1924.[6] The 2021 Pandora Papers leak and the 2022 Credit Suisse leak revealed that Abdullah maintained a vast empire of wealth that he disguised through offshore companies and tax havens; the Royal Court responded that the offshore accounts were used for offering privacy and security, while the funds were a result of private wealth inherited from his father.[7][8] Early lifeA young King Hussein and Princess Muna, holding their two young sonsPrince Abdullah (age 2) and Prince Faisal with their parents, King Hussein and Princess Muna, in 1964Abdullah was born on 30 January 1962 at Palestine Hospital in Amman, to King Hussein and Hussein's British-born second wife, Princess Muna Al-Hussein (born Antoinette Avril Gardiner).[9][10] He is the namesake of his paternal great-grandfather, Abdullah I, who founded modern Jordan.[11][12] Abdullah's dynasty, the Hashemites, ruled Mecca for over 700 years—from the 10th century until the House of Saud conquered Mecca in 1925—and have ruled Jordan since 1921.[13][14] The Hashemites are the oldest ruling dynasty in the Muslim world.[3] According to family tradition, Abdullah is the 41st-generation agnatic descendant of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and her husband, Ali, the fourth Rashidun caliph.[9][15] As Hussein's eldest son, Abdullah became heir apparent to the Jordanian throne under the 1952 constitution.[12][16] Political instability caused King Hussein to appoint an adult heir in his place, choosing Abdullah's uncle Prince Hassan in 1965.[17][18] Abdullah began his schooling in 1966 at the Islamic Educational College in Amman, and continued at St Edmund's School in England. He attended middle school at Eaglebrook School and high school at Deerfield Academy in the United States.[9] He was the commencement speaker at Deerfield Academy's class of 2000 graduation.[19] Abdullah has four brothers and six sisters: Princess Alia, Prince Faisal, Princess Aisha, Princess Zein, Princess Haya, Prince Ali, Prince Hamzah, Prince Hashem, Princess Iman and Princess Raiyah; seven of them are paternal half-siblings.[20] Military careerAbdullah (age 11) in uniform with soldiersAbdullah, age 11, during a 1973 visit to the Royal Jordanian Air Force headquartersHe began his military career at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in England in 1980, while he was a training officer in the Jordanian Armed Forces.[9][21] After Sandhurst, Abdullah was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the British Army and served a year in Britain and West Germany as a troop commander in the 13th/18th Royal Hussars.[9] Abdullah was admitted to Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1982, where he completed a one-year special-studies course in Middle Eastern affairs.[9] He joined the Royal Jordanian Army on his return home, serving as first lieutenant and then as platoon commander and assistant commander of a company in the 40th Armored Brigade.[22] Abdullah took a free-fall parachuting course in Jordan, and in 1985 he took the Armored Officer's Advanced Course at Fort Knox.[22] He became commander of a tank company in the 91st Armored Brigade, with the rank of captain.[22] Abdullah also served with the Royal Jordanian Air Force's anti-tank helicopter wing, receiving training to fly Cobra attack-helicopters.[22] The prince then attended the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., in 1987, undertaking advanced study and research in international affairs.[22] He returned home to serve as assistant commander of the 17th Royal Tank Battalion in 1989, later being promoted to major.[22] Abdullah attended a staff course at the British Staff College in 1990, and served the following year in the Office of the Inspector General of the Jordanian Armed Forces as the Armored Corps representative.[22] He commanded a battalion in the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment in 1992 and was promoted to colonel the following year, commanding the 40th Brigade.[22] Abdullah met Rania Al-Yassin, a marketing employee at Apple Inc. in Amman, at a dinner organized by his sister Princess Aisha in January 1993.[23] They became engaged two months later, and their marriage took place in June.[23] In 1994 Abdullah assumed command of Jordan's Special Forces and of other elite units as a brigadier general, restructuring them into the Joint Special Operations Command two years later.[22] He became a major general, attended a course in defence-resources management at the American Naval Postgraduate School[22] and commanded an elite special-forces manhunt in the pursuit of outlaws in 1998.[24] The operation reportedly ended successfully, with his name chanted on the streets of Amman.[24] ReignAccession and enthronementJordanian royal familyListExtended royal familyNoor and othersHaya and othersMuna and othersAliaFiryal and othersHassan and othersBasmaNayef and othersvteAbdullah joined his father on a number of missions, including meetings abroad with Soviet and American leaders.[25] He was occasionally King Hussein's regent during the 1990s but this duty was mainly performed by Hussein's younger brother, Crown Prince Hassan.[22] Abdullah led his father's delegation to Moscow for talks in 1987.[25] He frequently visited the Pentagon in Washington, where he lobbied for increased military assistance to Jordan.[25] The prince joined his father on trips to visit Hafez Al-Assad in Damascus and Saddam Hussein in Baghdad (before the 1990 Gulf War).[25] Abdullah commanded military exercises during Israeli military officials' visits to Jordan in 1997, and was sent to hand-deliver a message to Muammar Gaddafi in 1998.[25] King Hussein frequently traveled to the US for medical treatment after his diagnosis with cancer in 1992.[22] After Hussein returned from a six-month medical absence from Jordan in late 1998, he criticized his brother Hassan's management of Jordanian affairs in a public letter, accusing him of abusing his constitutional powers as regent.[22] On 24 January 1999, two weeks before his death, Hussein surprised everyone—including Abdullah who thought he would spend his life in the military—by replacing Hassan with his son as heir apparent.[22] The king died of complications of non-Hodgkin lymphoma on 7 February 1999.[26] His 47-year reign extended through four turbulent decades of the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Cold War.[26] Several hours after the announcement of his father's death, Abdullah appeared at an emergency session of the Jordanian parliament.[26] Hussein's two brothers, Hassan and Mohammed, walked ahead of him as he entered the assembly.[26] In Arabic, he swore the oath taken by his father almost fifty years earlier: "I swear by Almighty God to uphold the constitution and to be faithful to the nation".[26] Speaker of the Senate Zaid Al-Rifai opened the session with Al-Fatiha (the opening chapter of the Quran), his voice cracking with emotion as he led the recitation. "God, save His Majesty... God, give him advice and take care of him."[26] Abdullah's investiture took place on 9 June 1999.[27] A reception at Raghadan Palace attended by 800 dignitaries followed a motorcade ride through Amman by the 37-year-old king and his 29-year-old wife, Rania—the then youngest queen in the world.[27][28] First yearAs king, Abdullah retains wider executive and legislative authority than is normally the case for a constitutional monarch. He is head of state and commander-in-chief of the Jordanian Armed Forces and appoints the prime minister and the directors of security agencies.[29] The prime minister is free to choose his cabinet.[30] The Parliament of Jordan consists of two chambers: the appointed Senate and the elected House of Representatives, which serve as a check on the government. However, according to Freedom House, most seats in the House are held by pro-palace independents, and the crown's authority is such that it is extremely difficult for a party to win power solely via the ballot box.[29][30] The Senate is appointed by the king, and the House of Representatives is directly elected.[30] Abdullah shaking hands with former US defense secretary William Cohen outside a limousineAbdullah welcomed by US Secretary of Defense William Cohen during his first visit to the United States as king in 1999When Abdullah ascended to the throne as Jordan's fourth king, observers doubted his ability to manage the country's economic crisis—a legacy of the 1990 Gulf War.[31][32] The king maintained his father's moderate pro-Western policy, supporting the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty, and the royal transition prompted the United States and Arab states of the Persian Gulf to increase their aid.[31] In the early years of Abdullah's reign, which then ruled over a population of 4.5 million, it was reported that he frequently went undercover to see Jordan's challenges firsthand.[32][33] In 2000 he said about his incognito visits to government institutions, "The bureaucrats are terrified. It's great."[34] Abdullah cracked down on the Hamas presence in Jordan in November 1999 after pleas from the United States, Israel and the Palestinian Authority.[35] The crackdown occurred during peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority.[35] The king exiled four Hamas officials to Qatar and barred the group from political activity, closing their offices in Amman.[35] The peace talks collapsed into a violent Palestinian uprising, the Second Intifada, in September 2000.[36] As a result, Jordan faced dwindling tourism; tourism is an economic cornerstone of Jordan, a country with few natural resources.[36] Abdullah reportedly spearheaded efforts to defuse the political violence.[24] 2000sOn 23 June 2000, while vacationing in the Greek Islands, Abdullah received a phone call from the director of Mukhabarat (the country's Intelligence Directorate) warning of an assassination attempt against him by Al-Qaeda.[37] The plot was to target Abdullah and his family's rented yacht with explosives.[37] The September 11 attacks in 2001 on American targets were fiercely condemned by Abdullah.[38] Jordan responded quickly to American requests for assistance, enacting counterterrorism legislation and maintaining a high level of vigilance.[38] The country's Mukhabarat foiled similar plots the following year against Western targets, including the American and British embassies in Lebanon.[39] Abdullah meets with U.S. President George W. Bush in the Oval Office, 28 September 2001 Abdullah and Iranian President Mohammad Khatami in Tehran, 2 September 2003With the George W. Bush administration planning an attack on Iraq, accusing Saddam Hussein of possessing weapons of mass destruction, Abdullah opposed American intervention.[40] "A strike on Iraq will be disastrous for Iraq and the region as a whole and will threaten the security and stability of the Middle East", he warned during American vice president Dick Cheney's 2002 visit to the Middle East.[40] In March 2003, during a meeting with George W. Bush at the White House, Abdullah tried to dissuade the president from invading Iraq.[41] During the 1990 Gulf War, King Hussein's wariness of war was seen as siding with Saddam Hussein, which alienated Jordan from its Arab allies in the Persian Gulf region and the Western world;[42] his stance precipitated an economic crisis triggered by the suspension of foreign aid and investment to Jordan.[43] Failing to persuade Bush, Abdullah broke with domestic opposition.[41] He allowed American Patriot batteries to be stationed in the Jordanian desert along its border with Iraq, but did not allow coalition troops to launch an invasion from Jordan.[41] Jordan had received subsidized oil from Saddam Hussein's Iraq at a savings of about $500 million per year, equal to American aid to Jordan at the time.[41] The 2003 Jordanian general election was the first parliamentary election under Abdullah's rule.[44] Although the election was supposed to be held in 2001, it was postponed by the king due to regional political instability in accordance with the Jordanian constitution (which authorizes the monarch to postpone an election for a maximum of two years).[44] His postponement was criticized by the largest Islamist opposition party in the country, the Islamic Action Front (the political arm of the Muslim Brotherhood), who accused Abdullah of impeding the democratic process.[44] He inherited a controversial single non-transferable vote electoral system, implemented by his father in 1991, which hobbled Islamic political parties after they obtained 22 of 80 seats in the 1989 elections.[44] Abdullah issued a royal decree before the election, introducing an amendment to the election law giving women a six-seat quota in Parliament.[44] In 2004, Abdullah coined the term "Shia Crescent" to describe a Shia-dominated region from Damascus to Tehran (bypassing Baghdad) which promoted sectarian politics.[45] His warning received international attention, leading Abdullah to clarify that he meant a shift in political (not sectarian) alignment.[45] The king's observation was validated after the rise of Shia Nouri Al-Maliki to the Iraqi government in 2006 and subsequent events.[45] Abdullah, Rania and two other people applauding in an audienceAbdullah and Queen Rania (third and fourth from left) during the World Economic Forum in Jordan, 20 May 2007Al-Qaeda in Iraq founder Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi claimed responsibility for a terrorist attack in Amman on 9 November 2005.[46] It was the deadliest attack in Jordan's history;[47] suicide bombers targeted three hotels, one of which was hosting a wedding.[48] The attack killed 60 people and injured 115.[49] Prior to the attack, Al-Zarqawi had threatened: "What is coming is more vicious and bitter".[48] In 2006, Al-Zarqawi was killed in an airstrike with the aid of Jordanian intelligence agents.[50] Abdullah and Jordan are viewed with contempt by Islamic extremists for the country's peace treaty with Israel and its relationship with the West.[48] Jordan's security was tightened, and no major terrorist attacks have been reported in the country since then.[49] Russian president Vladimir Putin visited Jordan for the first time in February 2007 and was welcomed by Abdullah.[51] The leaders discussed prospects for the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, Iran's nuclear program and violence in Iraq.[51] Abdullah established King's Academy near Madaba, the Middle East's first boarding school, in 2007 in appreciation of the education he received at Deerfield Academy.[52] He hired Deerfield headmaster Eric Widmer to oversee the school, which has students from throughout the region.[52] In 2007, it was reported that Jordan hosted 800,000 Iraqi refugees who fled the insurgency following the American invasion;[53] most have returned to Iraq.[54] The 2007 Jordanian general election was held in November, with secular opposition groups accusing the government of using rising Islamism as an excuse for "autocratic rule".[55] In 2008, Abdullah became the first Arab head of state to visit Iraq after the 2003 American invasion.[56] The visit was amid Sunni Arab concerns of growing Iranian influence in Iraq.[56] 2010sArab Spring 2010–2014The Tunisian Revolution in December 2010 (which unseated that country's president) brought Egyptians into the streets, and by January 2011 they overthrew president Hosni Mubarak.[57] Protests in other Arab countries soon followed, resulting in civil wars in Libya, Syria and Yemen.[57] In Jordan, opposition groups including the Muslim Brotherhood, leftists, and retired army generals protested throughout the country.[58] By 1 February 2011, domestic unrest prompted Abdullah to sack Samir Rifai's government and pledge to follow a democratic trajectory.[58] Large street demonstration, with speakers addressing the crowd16 November 2012 Arab Spring demonstration in Amman against a later-revoked government decision to cut fuel subsidiesThe 2011–12 Jordanian protests were driven by complaints about a troubled economy: soaring prices, widespread unemployment and a relatively low standard of living.[58] Although some called for an end to the monarchy, most protesters' anger was directed at politicians viewed as undemocratic, corrupt and unaccountable.[58] Demonstrators called for the dissolution of the parliament which had been elected three months earlier in November 2010, when pro-regime figures won a majority of seats.[58] The Jordanian monarchy was the first Arab regime to offer political concessions during the Arab Spring.[58] Marouf Bakhit was appointed prime minister, but protests continued throughout the summer; Bakhit was seen as a conservative unlikely to push for reform.[59] Dissatisfied with the pace of reform, Abdullah sacked Bakhit's government and appointed Awn Khasawneh to form a cabinet.[59] Khasawneh abruptly resigned in April 2012, and the King appointed Fayez Tarawneh as interim prime minister; it was the third government reshuffle in 18 months.[60] In November 2012 the government cut fuel subsidies, driving up prices.[61] The decision, later revoked, triggered large-scale protests across the country.[62] The regime calmed the unrest by introducing reforms, amending about one-third of the constitution and establishing a Constitutional Court and the Independent Election Commission.[63] Abdullah called for an early parliamentary election and appointed Abdullah Ensour to form a cabinet of intermittent government.[64] In the January 2013 election, pro-regime figures were victorious as opposition groups continued a boycott,[64] with Islamic Action Front claiming earlier that election was performed in absence of actual opposition.[64] Since December 2012, the king has published seven discussion papers outlining his vision of democracy and reform in Jordan.[65] Abdullah and U.S. President Barack Obama in the Oval Office in Washington, D.C., 26 April 2013West BankIn December 2012, Abdullah was the first head of state to visit the West Bank after a United Nations General Assembly vote upgraded the Palestinian Authority to a nonmember observer state.[66] Jordan sees an independent Palestinian state, with the 1967 borders, as part of the two-state solution and of supreme national interest.[67] Jordan, the only country bordering the West Bank other than Israel, ruled it after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and lost in the 1967 Six-Day War.[66] Its annexation of the West Bank was not recognized, and in 1988 the kingdom ceded its claim to the territory.[66] An interview with Abdullah by Jeffrey Goldberg, published in The Atlantic in March 2013, sparked controversy when the king criticized local and international figures and parties.[68] He called the Muslim Brotherhood a "Masonic cult" and "wolves in sheep's clothing", described ousted Egyptian president Mohammad Morsi as a man with "no depth" and said that Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan saw democracy as "a bus ride".[68] Abdullah also criticized American diplomats, some of his country's tribal leaders and members of his family.[68] Another 2013 article in The Atlantic advised him to address governmental corruption, saying that there "is a growing perception that the degeneracy reaches the palace".[69] According to the article, Abdullah was accused of "illegally appropriating 'tribal' lands" shortly after his accession[69] and members of 36 Jordanian tribes issued a statement denouncing Queen Rania's "publicized and extravagant" 40th birthday party in 2013.[69] Regional turmoil 2014–2019I was asked many questions by Jordanians that were getting just as frustrated seeing that 20 per cent of their country are now Syrian refugees, the impact it has on jobs, on property, on unemployment. And they ask me, "stop the Syrians coming into the country", and I say "How?" When you have a mother, a pregnant mother with a child in the hand trying to cross the border, how are we going to stop her? Do we sort of point bayonets at these people that are running away from horrible and threatening lives? There is a level of humanity that we have to reach out to each other. Abdullah's 23 November 2016 interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation[70]The March 2011 outbreak of the Syrian Civil War forced masses of refugees across Jordan's border with Syria, about 3,000 refugees per day in the war's early stages.[71] When asked about the Syrian conflict in an interview with the BBC in November 2011, Abdullah said that he would resign if he was in Bashar Al-Assad's shoes.[72] "Whenever you exert violence on your own people, it's never going to end well and so as far as I'm concerned, yes, there will be an expiration date, but again it is almost impossible for anybody to predict whether that is six weeks, six months or six years."[72] About the unrest in Iraq, Abdullah told a delegation of US congressmen in June 2014 about his fear that the turmoil would spill across the entire region.[73] He said that any solution to the problems in the war-torn countries must involve all the people of Iraq and Syria.[73] Jordan began erecting barriers along its arid 175-kilometre (109 mi) border with Iraq and 379-kilometre (235 mi) border with Syria.[74] Since then, hundreds of infiltration attempts have been foiled by Jordanian border guards who were also occupied with the flow of refugees.[75] Jordan was involved in the CIA-led Timber Sycamore covert operation to train and arm Syrian rebels.[76] In April 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), an al-Qaeda affiliate which emerged in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities, posted an online video which threatened to invade the kingdom and slaughter Abdullah (whom they saw as an enemy of Islam).[77] "I have a message to the tyrant of Jordan: we are coming to you with death and explosive belts", an ISIL fighter said as he destroyed a Jordanian passport.[77] In August 2014, thousands of Iraqi Christians fled ISIL and sought shelter in Jordanian churches.[78] Abdullah meets with Russian President Vladimir Putin and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov in Sochi, 24 November 2015Shortly after Jordan joined the international coalition against ISIL in mid-September 2014, the country's security apparatus foiled a terror plot targeting civilians in Jordan.[79] Shortly afterwards, Abdullah said in an interview that the country's borders with Iraq and Syria were "extremely safe".[79] In late December 2014, a Jordanian F-16 fighter jet crashed near Raqqa, Syria, during a mission.[80] A video was posted online on 3 February 2015, showing captured Jordanian pilot Muath Al-Kasasbeh being burned to death in a cage;[80] throughout January, Jordan had negotiated for Al-Kasasbeh's release.[80] The terrorist group reportedly demanded the release of Sajida al-Rishawi in return, a suicide bomber whose belt failed to detonate in the 2005 Amman bombings.[80] Al-Kasasbeh's killing spurred outrage in the country, while the King was away in a state visit to the United States.[80] Before returning to Jordan, Abdullah swiftly ratified death sentences previously handed down to two imprisoned Iraqi jihadists, Sajida al-Rishawi and Ziad Al-Karbouly, who were executed before dawn of the next day.[81] The same evening, Abdullah was welcomed in Amman by cheering crowds who lined along the airport road to express their support.[81] His decision also garnered international support.[80] As commander-in-chief, Abdullah launched Operation Martyr Muath, a series of airstrikes against ISIL targets during the following week targeting weapons caches, training camps and oil-extraction facilities.[82] His retaliation was praised on the Internet, where he was dubbed "The Warrior King".[83] Rumors had circulated that he personally led the sorties.[84] During a January 2016 BBC interview, Abdullah said that Jordan is at the "boiling point" because of the Syrian refugee influx, Jordan claims more than a million Syrians have sought refuge in Jordan.[85] The king noted pressure on the country's economy, infrastructure and services.[85] "Sooner or later, I think, the dam is going to burst", he warned.[85] Jordan has historically welcomed refugees—Palestinians in 1948 and 1967, Iraqis during the American invasion and now Syrians, who make up about 20 percent of Jordan's then 9.5 million population—and, according to Abdullah, "For the first time, we can't do it any more."[85][54] Abdullah meets with U.S. President Donald Trump in Washington, D.C., 5 April 2017 Abdullah meets with U.S. President Joe Biden in the Diplomatic Reception Room, 19 July 2021The November 2016 Jordanian general election was the first election since 1989 primarily using a form of proportional representation; intervening elections had used the single non-transferable vote system.[86] Reforms encouraged opposition parties, including the Islamic Action Front (who had boycotted previous elections, including 2010 and 2013), to participate.[86] The election was considered fair and transparent by independent international observers.[87] Proportional representation is seen as the first step toward establishing parliamentary governments in which parliamentary blocs, instead of the king, choose the prime minister.[88] However, the underdevelopment of political parties in Jordan have slowed down such moves.[88] Abdullah established a close cooperation between Jordan and the International Labour Organization (ILO).[89][90] Between 2013 and 2015, the ILO started programs in Jordan to support working opportunities for refugees in Jordan. In 2016, Jordan signed the Jordan Compact, which improved legal employments opportunities for refugees.[91] After Donald Trump's inauguration as United States president on 20 January 2017, Abdullah traveled to the US on an official visit.[92] He was worried about the new administration's positions on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, specifically, issues relating to Israeli settlements.[93] Abdullah met Trump briefly at the National Prayer Breakfast on 2 February, and reportedly convinced him to change his policy towards Israeli settlements.[94] This was substantiated by White House press secretary Sean Spicer, who said two days later that the expansion of Israeli settlements may not be helpful in achieving peace.[92] According to The New York Times, the "encounter put the king, one of the most respected leaders of the Arab world, ahead of Mr. Netanyahu in seeing the new president."[94] Senator Bob Corker confirmed Abdullah's influence in an interview: "We call him the Henry Kissinger of that part of the world and we do always love to listen to his view of the region."[95] Abdullah criticized United States' decision to recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[96] On 4 June 2018, Prime Minister Hani Al-Mulki resigned from office.[97] Large protests against corruption, the economic policies and austerity plans as well as the tax increases, occurred before Hani Al-Mulki resigned.[98] Abdullah moved former education minister Omar Razzaz to the position of the new Prime Minister[97] and ordered him to conduct a review of the controversial tax system.[99] On 25 June 2018, Abdullah made another official visit to Washington, DC. He was hosted by President Trump at the White House and they discussed "terrorism, the threat from Iran and the crisis in Syria, and working towards a lasting peace between Israelis and Palestinians".[100][101] In August 2018, after the Trump administration had announced to end all US funding for UNRWA,[102] Abdullah sought to replace the US funds. Jordan convened meetings of the Arab League and Western countries.[103][104] 2020sIn an interview with Der Spiegel in May 2020, Abdullah criticized Donald Trump's plans for peace in the Middle East including Israel annexing parts of the West Bank. He stated, "The two-state solution is the only way for us to be able to move forward", and noted a possible Israeli annexation of the West Bank causes conflicts.[105] In October 2020, Omar Razzaz resigned from his position due to the criticism of his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, Abdullah dissolved the parliament and instructed his chief policy adviser, Bishr Al-Khasawneh, to form a new government as the new Prime Minister.[106] After Joe Biden won the 2020 United States presidential election, Abdullah was the first Arab leader to congratulate Biden for his victory.[107] On 15 January 2021, Abdullah and Crown Prince Hussein received COVID-19 vaccinations.[108] In April 2021, Abdullah ordered the arrest of his half-brother, Prince Hamzah bin Hussein, and twenty other courtiers for what was called "sedition".[109] Hamzah's removal as crown prince by Abdullah has been cited as a possible factor. 18 other Jordanian figures were also arrested,[110] including Abdullah's controversial former Chief of Staff, former Saudi Arabian envoy and Royal Court Chief Bassem Awadallah.[111][112] Royal family member Sharif Hassan Bin Zaid, who is hardly known in Jordan and whose father now resides in Saudi Arabia, was also among those arrested.[113] On 7 April, King Abdullah II spoke publicly for the first time since the alleged coup and hinted that the Jordanian royal feud was over, stating that the "sedition" that caused him "pain and anger" was now buried and that Hamzah was now "in his palace under my protection."[110][114] Abdullah also stated that the crisis began when Jordan's military chief of staff paid a visit to Hamzah and warned him to stop attending meetings with critics of the government.[110] On 19 July 2021, during a two-week visit to the US, Abdullah was received at the White House by President Joe Biden.[115] They discussed the Middle East conflict, the battle against COVID-19, and the relationship between Jordan and the US.[116][117][118] Abdullah was the first leader from the Middle East to visit the White House since Biden's inauguration on 20 January 2021.[119] On 23 August 2021, during a visit to Russia, Abdullah met with Russian president Vladimir Putin in Moscow.[120] They discussed the latest developments in Afghanistan and a "normalization" of Syria.[121] Abdullah thanked Putin for Russia's support for Jordan and its provision of anti-COVID vaccines.[120][122] In early September 2021, Abdullah and Israeli president Isaac Herzog discussed sustainability, the climate crisis and energy in an unannounced meeting.[123] On 27 September 2021, after Crown Prince Hussein tested positive for COVID-19, Abdullah and his wife went into quarantine despite negative tests.[124][125] On 10 October 2021, Crown Prince Hussein resumed his duties.[126][127] On 3 October 2021, Abdullah held a telephone conversation with Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, the first contact since the start of the Syrian civil war.[128] They discussed bilateral relations after Amman fully opened borders with Syria.[129] On 16 July 2022, Abdullah met with US President Joe Biden in Jeddah during the summit of the leaders of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, and the US.[130][131] Biden pledged additional financial assistance to Jordan worth more than $1.4 billion per year until 2029, and also to support Abdullah's economic reforms.[132] In January 2023, Abdullah met with Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau in Ottawa.[133] They discussed the Russian invasion of Ukraine and tensions in the Middle East.[134][135] Abdullah and Trudeau expressed "deep concern about the deteriorating situation in the West Bank and Gaza".[136] On 2 February 2023, Abdullah met again with President Biden and Vice President Kamala Harris in Washington, D.C.[137][138] They discussed bilateral relations, the economy and tensions in the Middle East.[139] President Biden reaffirmed the support for Jordan's "security and economic prosperity"[140][141] and Abdullah's role as "Guardian of the Holy Sites".[142] Administrative reformsEconomicKing Abdullah proposed significant economic reforms to the country during the first decade of his reign.[143] Jordan, a relatively-small, semi-arid, almost-landlocked country, has one of the smallest economies in the region; its GDP was about $39 billion in 2016.[144][143] Insufficient natural resources, especially in water and oil (unlike its neighbors) have given the kingdom chronic government debt, unemployment and poverty[143] which led to a dependence on foreign aid from its Western and Arab allies in the Persian Gulf region.[143] Jordan embarked on an aggressive economic liberalization program when Abdullah was crowned in an effort to stimulate the economy and raise the standard of living, and its economy has improved under his reign.[143] He has been credited with attracting foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships and providing the foundation for the Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority and Jordan's flourishing information and communications technology (ICT) sector.[145][146] Abdullah set up five other special economic zones: Irbid, Ajloun, Mafraq, Ma'an and the Dead Sea.[145] As a result of these reforms, Jordan's economic growth doubled (to 8% annually) between 2004 and 2008 compared with the latter half of the 1990s.[143] It also led to a steady increase in foreign investment by the West and the Persian Gulf countries.[147] Abdullah negotiated a free-trade agreement with the United States, the third free-trade agreement for the US and its first with an Arab country.[148] Under the agreement, Jordanian exports to the United States increased from $63 million in 2000 to over $1.4 billion in 2015.[149] Jordan's foreign debt-to-GDP ratio fell from more than 210 percent in 1990 to 83 percent by the end of 2005, a decrease called an "extraordinary achievement" by the International Monetary Fund.[150] Abdullah's efforts have made Jordan the freest Arab economy and the ninth-freest economy in the world, according to a 2014 study by the Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Liberty.[151] A seated Abdullah gestures with his hands before a microphoneAbdullah speaking during a session of the World Economic Forum in Davos, 25 January 2013The king launched a number of initiatives to provide housing for Jordanian citizens, including teachers and those serving in the armed forces.[152] He established awards to encourage good citizenship, including the King Abdullah II Award for Physical Fitness, the King Abdullah II Award for Excellence in Government Performance and Transparency, the King Abdullah II Award for Excellence for the Private Sector and the King Abdullah II Award for Excellence for Business Associations.[152] To combat unemployment, Abdullah established the National Vocational Training Council and formed a committee to develop a national strategy for developing human resources to produce a skilled workforce.[152] Jordan was dependent on subsidized Iraqi oil for its energy.[41] The 2003 American invasion of Iraq halted the petroleum supply and drove Jordan to begin importing gas from Egypt in 2009.[153] Insurgency in Sinai began when the Arab Spring spread to Egypt, where the Arab Gas Pipeline runs.[153] Since 2011 the pipeline has been attacked over 30 times by ISIL's Sinai affiliates, and the pipeline was effectively closed in 2014.[154] Jordan incurred $6 billion in losses.[154] The Great Recession and regional turmoil triggered by the Arab Spring during the 2010s hobbled the Jordanian economy, making it increasingly reliant on foreign aid.[153] The shocks hit Jordan's tourism sector (a cornerstone of the country's economy) hardest, and tourist arrivals have fallen by over 66 percent since 2011.[155][156] However, in 2017, tourism started to pick up again.[157] Growth of the Jordanian economy slowed to an annual average rate of 2.8 percent between 2010 and 2016—down from an average of 8% in previous years—insufficient to accommodate the exponential growth of the population.[143] Jordan's total foreign debt in 2012 was $22 billion, 72 percent of its GDP.[61] In 2016 the debt reached $35.1 billion, 95 percent of the country's GDP.[153][158] The increase was attributed to regional challenges, which decreased tourist activity and foreign investment and increased military spending; attacks on the Egyptian pipeline; the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria; the expense of hosting Syrian refugees, and accumulated loan interest.[153] According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year (six percent of its GDP and 25 percent of the government's annual revenue).[159] Foreign aid covers only a portion of these costs, 63 percent of which are borne by Jordan.[160] An austerity program was adopted by the government which aims to reduce Jordan's debt-to-GDP ratio to 77 percent by 2021.[161] PoliticalAbdullah was criticized during his early years for focusing on economic, rather than political reform.[162] A committee was formed in February 2005 to formulate a blueprint for political reform in the country for the next decade.[162] This National Agenda, finalized about nine months later, was never implemented.[162] It included incorporating proportional representation into general elections, improving the judicial branch and respect for human rights, and tackling issues related to employment, welfare, education and infrastructure.[162] The Agenda was reportedly never implemented due to conservative opposition.[163] After the Arab Spring, a new election law in 2012 was enacted and used in the 2013 elections.[164] It incorporated elements of proportional representation, and 27 of the 150 House of Representatives members could be elected accordingly.[164] A number of political reforms were undertaken to curtail some of the king's powers, including amending about one-third of the constitution, establishing a constitutional court and the Independent Election Commission and improvements to laws governing human rights and freedom of speech and assembly.[165] In 2014 and 2016, several constitutional amendments sparked controversy despite their overwhelming approval by senators and representatives.[166] The amendments gave the king sole authority to appoint his crown prince, deputy, the chief and members of the constitutional court, the heads of the military and paramilitary forces and the country's General Intelligence Director.[167] Proponents said that the amendments solidified the separation of powers, while critics claimed they were unconstitutional.[167] Reforms introduced in the 2016 general election led Freedom House, a US-funded non-governmental organization, to upgrade Jordan to "partly free" from "not free" in its Freedom in the World 2017 report.[168] According to the report, Jordan became the third most free Arab country, and that the change was "due to electoral law changes that led to somewhat fairer parliamentary elections."[168] In September 2016, Abdullah formed a royal committee to make recommendations which would improve the country's judiciary.[169] The committee finalized its report, which revolved around strengthening judicial independence and improving criminal justice, in February 2017.[169] The Parliament approved the recommendations which included increased protection for women against violence and better trial procedures.[169] A new law for people with disabilities was also enacted.[169] Human Rights Watch praised the reforms.[169] On 15 August 2017, local elections were held for municipal councils, local councils, and governorate councils, which were added by a new decentralization law.[170] The law intends to cede some central-government power to elected councils, increasing citizen participation in municipal decision-making.[170] In a 15 August 2016 interview, Abdullah described the new decentralization law as "a very important link in the chain of reforms".[171] On 10 June 2021, Abdullah announced the introduction of a new committee of 92 members chaired by former prime minister Samir Rifai. The tasks of the committee are to modernise the political system and to propose new laws for local governments.[172] On 4 October 2021, the committee handed over its recommendations to Abdullah. The committee proposed draft laws for political parties and elections, as well as 22 amendments to the Jordan constitution regarding parliamentary work and empowering women and youth.[173] In November 2021, Abdullah ordered the government to push for political modernization. The Cabinet of Jordan submitted draft laws to the parliament following the committee's recommendations.[174] In December 2021, a parliamentary discussion on the constitutional amendment that would give more rights to women resulted into a fistfight between members of parliament.[175][176] On 3 January 2022, the Jordan parliament passed an amendment to Article 40 of the constitution, which allows Abdullah to appoint or dismiss the chief justice, the head of the Sharia judicial council, the Grand Mufti of Jordan, the chief of the Royal Court, the minister of the court, and the advisors to the king.[177][178][179] On 6 January 2022, Jordan parliament approved constitutional reforms by a majority of 104-8 including improvement of women's rights, lowering the minimum age for elected deputies to 25 and the prime minister being elected by the assembly's largest single party.[180][181] MilitaryDue to his military background, Abdullah believes in a powerful military and has followed a "quality over quantity" policy.[182] During the first year of his reign he established the King Abdullah Design and Development Bureau (now Jordan Design and Development Bureau), whose goal is to "provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces".[183][184] The company manufactures a wide variety of military products, which are presented at the biennial international Special Operations Forces Exhibition (SOFEX)—Abdullah is SOFEX's patron.[185] Abdullah modernized the army, leading Jordan to acquire advanced weaponry and increase and enhance its F-16 fighter-jet fleet.[186][187] The King occasionally trains with the Jordanian army in live ammunition military drills.[188] Energy sectorFive windmills in the desertThe 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm, inaugurated by Abdullah in 2014, is the largest onshore wind farm in the Middle East.[189]See also: Nuclear energy in JordanVandalism of the Egyptian pipeline supplying Jordan strained the country's electrical company, whose debt increased substantially; this prompted Abdullah to urge the government to formulate a 10-year plan (2015–2025) to diversify the kingdom's energy sources.[190][191] In 2007, Abdullah said that Jordan intends to benefit from its large uranium reserves by building nuclear reactors to generate electricity; the country is one of the few non-petroleum-producing nations in the region.[192] Early on, in a 2010 interview, Abdullah accused Israel of trying to disrupt Jordan's nuclear program.[193] Abdullah inaugurated Jordan's first nuclear facility in 2016.[194] The Jordan Research and Training Reactor, in the Jordan University of Science and Technology near Ar Ramtha, aims to train Jordanian students in the school's nuclear-engineering program.[194] In 2018, the country's Atomic Energy Commission announced that Jordan was in talks with multiple companies to build the first commercial nuclear plant, a Helium-cooled reactor that is scheduled for completion in 2025.[195] The country has 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds exceed 7 m/s in mountainous areas.[196] During the 2010s, Abdullah inaugurated the 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm and the 53 MW Shams Ma'an Power Plant.[197] In May 2017, it was announced that more than 200 MW of solar energy projects had been completed.[197] After having initially set the percentage of renewable energy Jordan aimed to generate by 2020 at 10%, the government announced in 2018 that it sought to beat that figure and aim for 20%.[198] A report by pv magazine described Jordan as the "Middle East's solar powerhouse".[199] In 2014 a declaration of intent was signed by Jordan's national electrical company and Noble Energy to import gas from Israel's offshore Leviathan gas field, a 15-year deal estimated at $10 billion.[200] The move provoked outrage by opponents, including the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement, which said that the agreement favored Israel and its occupation of the West Bank and accused the government of ignoring renewable-energy options.[200] The agreement, effective in 2019, was signed in September 2016.[200] Separately, Abdullah opened a liquefied natural gas port in Aqaba in 2015, allowing Jordan to import LNG.[201] LNG-generated electricity saves Jordan about $1 million a day, and is reportedly better for the environment.[201] Religious affairsSee also: Hashemite custodianship of Jerusalem holy sitesOur faith, like yours, commands mercy, peace and tolerance. It upholds, as yours does, the equal human dignity of every person – men and women, neighbours and strangers. Those outlaws of Islam who deny these truths are vastly outnumbered by the ocean of believers – 1.6 billion Muslims worldwide. In fact, these terrorists have made the world's Muslims their greatest target. We will not allow them to hijack our faith. Abdullah's 15 March 2015 speech before the European Parliament in Strasbourg, France[202]In response to Islamophobic rhetoric after 11 September attacks, Abdullah issued the Amman Message in November 2004.[3] The Message is a detailed statement which encouraged Muslim scholars of all sects from around the world to denounce terrorism, practice religious tolerance and represent the true nature of the Muslim faith.[203] The statement was adopted unanimously in a conference hosted by Abdullah in Amman in 2005 by 200 leading Islamic scholars.[203] The Message stressed three points: the validity of all eight schools of Islam, the forbidding of takfir (declaration of apostasy) and standards for the issuance of fatwas.[203] The Islamic religious consensus was unprecedented in contemporary times.[3] Abdullah presented the Message in 2010 to the United Nations General Assembly, where he proposed a World Interfaith Harmony Week.[204] The initiative was adopted, and is an annual celebration during the first week of February to promote peace and harmony among people of different faiths.[204] Abdullah also established an award, based on this initiative, for interfaith dialogue.[205] Islamic shrine with a gold domeThe Dome of the Rock and other Muslim and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem are in the custody of Abdullah, a position held by his dynasty since 1924.The Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in Jerusalem was under Jordanian rule from 1948 to 1967; it was under Hashemite custodianship since 1924, during the reign of Abdullah's great-great-grandfather Sharif Hussein bin Ali.[206] The legacy began when the Supreme Muslim Council, the highest body in charge of Muslim community affairs in Mandatory Palestine, accepted the sharif as custodian of the site.[206] He restored the Jami’ Al-Aqsa and other mosques in Palestine.[207] The sharif's son, King Abdullah I, is said to have personally taken charge of efforts to extinguish a fire which engulfed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1949.[208] Jami’ Al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock were restored four times by the Hashemites during the 20th century, and the custodianship became a Hashemite legacy given by Jordanian kings.[207] In 2013 an agreement was signed between the Palestinian Authority and Abdullah, replacing the decades-old verbal agreement which was reinforced by the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty.[6] Jordan recalled its ambassador to Israel in 2014 following tensions at Al-Aqsa Mosque between Israelis and Palestinians concerned about Jordan's role in safeguarding Muslim and Christian sacred sites in Jerusalem.[209] Abdullah met Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Amman in late 2014, and the Jordanian ambassador returned when Israeli authorities eased restrictions and revoked a decision that prevented men of all ages from praying at Al-Aqsa—for the first time in months.[209] In 2016, it was announced that Abdullah would fund the restoration of the Tomb of Jesus in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[210] The Royal Hashemite Court informed Orthodox Patriarch Theophilos III of Jerusalem of the makruma (royal benefaction) in a 10 April 2016 letter.[210] The tomb had been untouched since 1947, when the British installed steel support beams as part of a restoration project which never took place.[210] It was reopened to the public on 22 March 2017 after the renovation.[211] On 2 August 2017, Abdullah donated $1.4 million to the Jerusalem Waqf, the body that belongs to Jordan and is responsible for administering the Al-Aqsa mosque compound.[212] An independent report estimates the total amount that the Hashemites have spent since 1924 on administering and renovating Jami’ Al Aqsa as over $1 billion.[206] In 2014, Abdullah received Pope Francis in Jordan, the third papal visit of his reign.[3] The king, Queen Rania and Prince Ghazi accompanied the pope to Al-Maghtas, the site of Jesus' baptism, on the east bank of the Jordan River.[213] Abdullah led The 500 Most Influential Muslims' 2016 list, published by the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center, and was third on its 2018 list.[214] Queen Rania was 35th on the 2016 list.[214] Leaders of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre sent out a letter of support to Abdullah on 1 March 2018 after Israel shelved a proposed bill that aimed to propose new tax measures to churches in the West Bank. "Your defence of religious freedom and Your leadership, in ensuring that the Status Quo is respected and maintained, has been crucial in our ongoing attempts to guard and protect the Christian presence especially in the Holy City of Jerusalem", the letter read.[215] SuccessorSee also: Line of succession to the Jordanian throneOn 28 November 2004 Abdullah removed the title of crown prince from his half-brother, Prince Hamzah, whom he had appointed on 7 February 1999 in accordance with their father's advice.[216] In a letter to Hamzah read on Jordanian state television, Abdullah said: "Your holding this symbolic position has restrained your freedom and hindered our entrusting you with certain responsibilities that you are fully qualified to undertake."[216] Although no successor to the title was named at that time, the king was expected to appoint his son and heir apparent, Prince Hussein, crown prince.[216] Hussein received the title on 2 July 2009.[217] Personal lifeKing Abdullah met Rania Al-Yassin at a dinner party in January 1993. On 10 June 1993, they were married at Zahran Palace.[218] King Abdullah and Queen Rania have four children: Crown Prince Hussein (born 28 June 1994), Princess Iman (born 27 September 1996), Princess Salma (born 26 September 2000), and Prince Hashem (born 30 January 2005).[9] The ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed Al-Maktoum, was married to Abdullah's half-sister Princess Haya.[219] Abdullah published an autobiography, Our Last Best Chance: The Pursuit of Peace in a Time of Peril, in 2010.[220] He documents the first decade of his rule in a manner similar to his father's 1962 book, Uneasy Lies the Head.[220] Abdullah's book contains insights into his childhood and behind-the-scenes accounts of encounters with political figures.[220] InterestsAbdullah has listed skydiving, motorcycling, water sports and collecting ancient weapons as his interests and hobbies, and is a fan of the science-fiction series Star Trek.[24][84] In 1996, he appeared briefly in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Investigations", in a non-speaking role.[221] The king promotes tourism in Jordan, and was a tour guide for Discovery Channel travel host Peter Greenberg on Jordan: The Royal Tour.[222] In the program, Abdullah said that he is no longer permitted to skydive since he became king.[222] He reportedly motorcycled through northern California on a Harley-Davidson.[84] Prince Ali bin Al Hussein, one of Abdullah's brothers and president of the Jordan Football Association, has said that the king is the Jordan national football team's biggest fan.[84] His interest in the film industry influenced his decision to create the Red Sea Institute of Cinematic Arts in the Red Sea coastal town of Aqaba on 20 September 2006, in partnership with the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts.[223] When the producers of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen decided to film in Jordan, Abdullah called on military helicopters to help transport equipment into Petra.[84] In 2016, the king honored the cast of Theeb, the first Jordanian film nominated for an Oscar.[224] Abdullah also enjoys stand-up comedy. When Gabriel Iglesias, Russell Peters and a number of other stand-up comedians visited Jordan for a 2009 comedy festival, the king invited them over for dinner.[225] In 2013, a video of Abdullah helping push a car stuck in snow in Amman during the 2013 Middle East cold snap went viral.[226] In 2017, another amateur video that went viral showed Abdullah wearing pyjamas helping in extinguishing a fire in a wood near the royal palace.[227] WealthAbdullah owns an international network of real estate properties, valued in excess of $100 million. His ownership of the properties was disguised through a series of offshore companies incorporated in the British Virgin Islands. Abdullah's property empire was disclosed in the Pandora Papers leak, which revealed ownership of three contiguous oceanfront estates in the Point Dume area of Malibu,[228][7] and properties in Washington, D.C., London and Ascot.[229] His lawyers denied any misuse of public funds or tax evasion and stated that they were bought from the monarch's private wealth and through offshore companies for security and privacy reasons.[230] A 2022 Credit Suisse leak revealed that Abdullah owned six secret accounts, including one whose balance exceeded $224 million. A Royal Court statement said that the funds were a result of selling an Airbus 340 plane that belonged to his father the late King Hussein for $212 million, and that it was replaced with a smaller, less costly Gulfstream aircraft.[8][231] Titles, honours and awardsTitles30 January 1962 – 1 March 1965: His Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Jordan1 March 1965 – 24 January 1999: His Royal Highness Prince Abdullah of Jordan24 January 1999 – 7 February 1999: His Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Jordan7 February 1999 – present: His Majesty the King of the Hashemite Kingdom of JordanHonoursNational honours Jordan: Grand Master of the Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali.[citation needed] Grand Master of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance.[citation needed] Grand Master of the Order of the Hashemite Star.[232] Grand Master of the Order of Military Gallantry.[233] Grand Master of the Order of the Star of Jordan.[citation needed] Grand Master of the Order of Independence.[citation needed] Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit. Founding Grand Master of the Order of King Abdullah II bin Al Hussein for Excellence. Founding Grand Master of the Order of the State Centennial. Sovereign of the Al-Hussein Medal of Excellence.[233] Sovereign of the Long Service Medal. Sovereign of the Administrative & Leadership Competence Medal. Sovereign of the Administrative & Technical Competence Medal. Sovereign of the Administrative & Training Competence Medal.Foreign honours Algeria: Grand Collar of the National Order of Merit (4 December 2022).[234] Austria: Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (January 2001).[233] Bahrain: Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of Al-Khalifa (4 November 1999).[235] Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (18 May 2016).[236] Brunei: Recipient of the Royal Family Order of the Crown of Brunei (13 May 2008).[237] Cyprus: Grand Collar of the Order of Makarios III (17 December 2021) Czech Republic: Member 1st Class of the Order of the White Lion (11 February 2015).[238] Finland: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose (2010).[239] Georgia: Recipient of the Order of the Golden Fleece (29 May 2022) Germany: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic (10 October 2002).[235] Guinea Bissau: Recipient of the Medal of Amílcar Cabral (20 February 2023)[240] Italy:Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (9 February 2001).Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (15 January 1987).[241] Japan:Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (30 November 1999).[242]Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (November 1993).[243] Kazakhstan: Recipient of the 10 Years of Astana Medal, (18 May 2008)[244] Lebanon: Member Extraordinary Grade of the Order of Merit of Lebanon (14 September 1999)[citation needed] Libya: Member 1st Class of the Order of the Grand Conqueror (1 September 1999)[citation needed] Montenegro: Member 1st Class of the Order of the Republic of Montenegro (2017)[245] Morocco:Collar of the Order of MuhammadGrand Cordon of the Order of the Throne Netherlands:Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (30 October 2006)[246]Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange (7 December 1994)[citation needed] Norway: Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav (4 April 2000)[citation needed] Oman: Member Special Class of the Civil Order of Oman (4 October 2022)[247] Palestine: Grand Cordon of the Order of Jerusalem (21 November 2015)[248] Peru: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru (31 May 2005)[249] Poland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle (26 September 1999)[citation needed] Portugal:Grand Collar of the Order of Saint James of the Sword (16 March 2009)[250]Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (5 March 2008)[250] Romania: Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania (20 December 2005)[251] Slovenia: Gold Medal of the Order of Freedom of the Republic of Slovenia (2002)[252] South Korea: Recipient of Grand Order of Mugunghwa (4 December 1999)[citation needed] Spain:Knight of the Collar of the Order of Charles III (21 April 2006)[citation needed]Knights of the Collar of the Order of Isabel the Catholic (18 October 1999)[citation needed]Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit, with white distinctive (15 September 1995)[citation needed]Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Aeronautical Merit, with white distinctive (23 December 1999)[253] Sweden: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim (7 October 2003)[254] Tunisia: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic Ukraine:Member 1st Class of the Order of Merit (22 June 2011)[255]Member 1st Class of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (23 April 2002)[256] United Kingdom:Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Military Class (6 November 2001)[257]Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (12 May 1999)[257]Honorary Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (26 March 1984)[258]Recipient of the Sandhurst MedalHonorary degrees1 January 2001: Doctorate in political sciences, University of Jordan.[259]3 September 2004: Doctorate, International Relations Institute in Moscow.[260]21 March 2005: Doctor of Humane Letters for socioeconomic development in Jordan and promoting interfaith dialogue, Georgetown University.[261]15 December 2005: Doctorate in political sciences, Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.[262]4 June 2008: Doctorate in civil law, University of Oxford.[263]8 November 2011: Doctorate in humanitarian sciences for efforts in defending Jerusalem's holy sites, Al-Quds University (represented by Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas).[264]Honorary military appointmentsUnited Kingdom United KingdomUnited Kingdom Since 19 August 2003: Colonel-in-Chief of The Light Dragoons, British Army[265]Awards16 March 2002: Young Presidents Organisation's Global Leadership Award (California).[266]30 September 2003: Sorbonne Association for Foreign Policy award for political courage in France.[267]20 October 2003: Pioneer in E-Business award, Arab Business magazine (United Arab Emirates).[268]16 April 2004: INFORUM 21st-Century Award from the Commonwealth Club of California, awarded to young leaders who strive for positive change.[269]9 June 2004: Golden Shield Award (Chicago) for efforts to stabilize the Middle East.[270]June 2004: Academy of Achievement Golden Plate Award for Achievement.[271][272]On 21 March 2005: Franklin Delano Roosevelt International Disability Award, United Nations.[273]21 June 2005: Simon Wiesenthal Center Tolerance Award.[274]21 December 2005: Golden Medal of Athens Award.[275]8 May 2007: Peacemaker Award, Seeds of Peace.[276]8 October 2016: Peace of Westphalia Prize, Germany;[277] German president Joachim Gauck said that Abdullah and the Jordanians set "standards for humanity" with their response to the refugee crisis.[277]16 November 2016: Peace prize (Kazakhstan) for contributions to security and nuclear disarmament.[278]19 January 2017: Abu Bakr Al Siddeiq Medal (First Class) from the Arab Red Crescent and Red Cross Organisation for Jordan's support of the Palestinian people and efforts on behalf of Syrian refugees.[279]27 June 2018: Templeton Prize for promoting inter-faith dialogue, the awarding statement said that Abdullah "has done more to seek religious harmony within Islam and between Islam and other religions than any other living political leader."[280]21 November 2019: Scholar-Statesman Award from The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.[281]WritingsAbdullah II of Jordan (2012). Our Last Best Chance: The Pursuit of Peace in a Time of Peril. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-104879-6.Abdullah II of Jordan, "Document Papers", Encyclopedia, Official website of King (Jordan) Jordan (Arabic: الأردن, romanized: al-ʾUrdunn [al.ʔur.dunː]), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,[a] is a country in West Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe,[8] within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south and east, Iraq to the northeast, Syria to the north, and the Palestinian West Bank and Israel to the west. The Dead Sea is located along its western border and the country has a 26 km (16 mi) coastline in its southwest on the Gulf of Aqaba's Red Sea, which separates Jordan from Egypt.[9] Amman is Jordan's capital and largest city, as well as its economic, political, and cultural centre.[10] Modern-day Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. In the third century BC, the Arab Nabataeans established their Kingdom with Petra as the capital. Later rulers of the Transjordan region include the Assyrian, Babylonian, Roman, Byzantine, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and the Ottoman empires. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Greater Syria region was partitioned by Britain and France. The Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the Hashemite, then Emir, Abdullah I, and the emirate became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan gained independence and became officially known in Arabic as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.[11] The country captured and annexed the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War until it was occupied by Israel in 1967. Jordan renounced its claim to the territory in 1988, became the second Arab state to sign a peace treaty with Israel in 1994, and since supports Palestinian statehood within a two-state solution.[12] Jordan is a semi-arid country, covering an area of 89,342 km2 (34,495 sq mi), with a population of 11.5 million, making it the eleventh-most populous Arab country. The dominant majority, or around 95% of the country's population, is Sunni Muslim, with a mostly Arab Christian minority. Jordan was mostly unscathed by the violence that swept the region following the Arab Spring in 2010.[13] From as early as 1948, Jordan has accepted refugees from multiple neighbouring countries in conflict. An estimated 2.1 million Palestinian and 1.4 million Syrian refugees are present in Jordan as of a 2015 census; with most Palestinian refugees holding Jordanian citizenship.[4] The kingdom is also a refuge for thousands of Christian Iraqis fleeing persecution by the Islamic State.[14][15] While Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure.[16] The sovereign state is a constitutional monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation. The country has a high Human Development Index, ranking 102nd, and is considered a lower middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce.[17] The country is a major tourist destination, also attracting medical tourism due to its well developed health sector.[18] Nonetheless, a lack of natural resources, large flow of refugees, and regional turmoil have hampered economic growth.[19] EtymologySee also: Jordan River § EtymologyJordan takes its name from the Jordan River, which forms much of the country's northwestern border.[20] While several theories for the origin of the river's name have been proposed, it is most plausible that it derives from the Hebrew word Yarad (Hebrew: ירד), meaning "the descender", reflecting the river's declivity.[21] Much of the area that makes up modern Jordan was historically called Transjordan, meaning "across the Jordan"; the term is used to denote the lands east of the river.[21] The Hebrew Bible (the founding holy text of Judaism, also referred to by Christians as the Old Testament) uses the term Hebrew: עבר הירדן, romanized: Ever ha'Yarden, lit. 'The other side of the Jordan' for the area.[21] Early Arab chronicles call the river Al-Urdunn (a term cognate to the Hebrew Yarden).[22] Jund Al-Urdunn was a military district around the river in the early Islamic era.[22] Later, during the Crusades in the beginning of the second millennium, a lordship was established in the area under the name of Oultrejordain.[23] HistoryMain article: History of JordanAncient period The 'Ain Ghazal Statues (c. 7250 BC) of Amman are some of the oldest human statues ever found.The oldest known evidence of hominid habitation in Jordan dates back at least 200,000 years.[24] Jordan is a rich source of Paleolithic human remains (up to 20,000 years old) due in part to its location within the Levant (where various migrations of hominids out of Africa converged)[25] and in part to its more humid climate during the Late Pleistocene, which resulted in the formation of numerous remains-preserving wetlands in the region.[26] Past lakeshore environments attracted different groups of hominids, and several remains of tools dating from the Late Pleistocene have been found there.[25] Scientists have found the world's oldest known evidence of bread-making at a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert.[27] During the Neolithic period (10,000–4,500 BC), there was a transition there from a hunter-gatherer culture to a culture with established populous agricultural villages.[28] 'Ain Ghazal, one such village located at a site in the eastern part of present-day Amman, is one of the largest known prehistoric settlements in the Near East.[29] Dozens of plaster statues of the human form, dating to 7250 BC or earlier, have been uncovered there; they are "among the earliest large-scale representations of the human form" ever found.[30] Other than the Chalcolithic (4500–3600 BC) villages such as Tulaylet Ghassul in the Jordan Valley,[31] There is a series of circular stone enclosures in the eastern basalt desert; archaeologists continue to be baffled as to their purpose.[32] The Mesha Stele (c. 840 BC) records the glory of Mesha, King of MoabFortified towns and urban centres first emerged in the southern Levant early in the Bronze Age (3600–1200 BC).[33] Wadi Feynan became a regional centre for copper extraction - the metal was exploited on a large scale to produce bronze.[34] Trade and movement of people in the Middle East peaked, spreading cultural innovations and whole civilizations to spread.[35] Villages in Transjordan expanded rapidly in areas with reliable water-resources and arable land.[35] Ancient Egyptian populations expanded towards the Levant and came to control both banks of the Jordan River.[36] During the Iron Age (1200–332 BC), after the withdrawal of the Egyptians, Transjordan was home to the Kingdoms of Ammon, Edom and Moab.[37] The peoples of these kingdoms spoke Semitic languages of the Canaanite group; archaeologists have concluded that their polities were tribal kingdoms rather than states.[37] Ammon was located in the Amman plateau; Moab in the highlands east of the Dead Sea; and Edom in the area around Wadi Araba in the south.[37] The northwestern region of the Transjordan, known then as Gilead, was settled by the Israelites.[38] The Transjordanian kingdoms of Ammon, Edom and Moab continually clashed with the neighbouring Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah, centered west of the Jordan River.[39] One record of this is the Mesha Stele, erected by the Moabite king Mesha in 840 BC; in an inscription on it, he lauds himself for the building projects that he initiated in Moab and commemorates his glory and his victory against the Israelites.[40] The stele constitutes one of the most important archeological parallels to accounts recorded in the Bible.[41] At the same time, Israel and the Kingdom of Aram-Damascus competed for control of the Gilead.[42][43] Around the period between 740 and 720 BC, Israel and Aram Damascus were conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The kingdoms of Ammon, Edom & Moab were subjugated, but were allowed to maintain some degree of independence.[44] Then, in 627 BC, following after the disintegration of the Assyrians' empire, Babylonians took control of the area.[44] Although the kingdoms supported the Babylonians against Judah in the 597 BC sack of Jerusalem, they rebelled against Babylon a decade later.[44] The kingdoms were reduced to vassals, a status they retained under the Persian and Hellenic Empires.[44] By the beginning of Roman rule around 63 BC, the kingdoms of Ammon, Edom and Moab had lost their distinct identities and were assimilated into the Roman culture.[37] Some Edomites survived longer – driven by the Nabataeans, they had migrated to southern Judea, which became known as Idumaea; they were later converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans.[45] Classical period Al-Khazneh in Petra (c. 1st century AD), is believed to be the mausoleum of the Arab Nabataean King Aretas IV.Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire in 332 BC introduced Hellenistic culture to the Middle East.[46] After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the empire split among his generals, and in the end much of Transjordan was disputed between the Ptolemies based in Egypt and the Seleucids based in Syria.[46] The Nabataeans, nomadic Arabs based south of Edom, managed to establish an independent kingdom in 169 BC by exploiting the struggle between the two Greek powers.[46] The Nabataean Kingdom controlled much of the trade routes of the region, and it stretched south along the Red Sea coast into the Hejaz desert, up to as far north as Damascus, which it controlled for a short period (85–71) BC.[47] The Nabataeans massed a fortune from their control of the trade routes, often drawing the envy of their neighbours.[48] Petra, Nabataea's barren capital, flourished in the 1st century AD, driven by its extensive water irrigation systems and agriculture.[49] The Nabataeans were also talented stone carvers, building their most elaborate structure, Al-Khazneh, in the first century AD.[50] It is believed to be the mausoleum of the Arab Nabataean King Aretas IV.[50] Roman legions under Pompey conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted four centuries.[51] In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed Nabataea unopposed, and rebuilt the King's Highway which became known as the Via Traiana Nova road.[51] The Romans gave the Greek cities of Transjordan—Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Gedara (Umm Quays), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Arbila (Irbid)—and other Hellenistic cities in Palestine and southern Syria, a level of autonomy by forming the Decapolis, a ten-city league.[52] Jerash is one of the best preserved Roman cities in the East; it was even visited by Emperor Hadrian during his journey to Palestine.[53] The Oval Forum of Jerash (c. 1st century AD), then member of the ten-city Roman league, the Decapolis. Seven out of the ten Decapolis cities are present in modern-day Jordan.In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split and the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD.[54] Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD after Emperor Constantine the Great converted to Christianity.[54] The Edict of Thessalonica made Christianity the official state religion in 380 AD. Transjordan prospered during the Byzantine era, and Christian churches were built everywhere.[55] The Aqaba Church in Ayla was built during this era, it is considered to be the world's first purpose built Christian church.[56] Umm ar-Rasas in southern Amman contains at least 16 Byzantine churches.[57] Meanwhile, Petra's importance declined as sea trade routes emerged, and after a 363 earthquake destroyed many structures, it declined further, eventually being abandoned.[50] The Sassanian Empire in the east became the Byzantines' rivals, and frequent confrontations sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan.[58] Islamic eraIn 629 AD, during the Battle of Mu'tah in what is today Karak Governorate, the Byzantines and their Arab Christian clients, the Ghassanids, staved off an attack by a Muslim Rashidun force that marched northwards towards the Levant from the Hejaz (in modern-day Saudi Arabia).[59] The Byzantines however were defeated by the Muslims in 636 AD at the decisive Battle of Yarmouk just north of Transjordan.[59] Transjordan was an essential territory for the conquest of Damascus.[60] The first, or Rashidun, caliphate was followed by that of the Umayyads (661–750).[60] Under the Umayyad Caliphate, several desert castles were constructed in Transjordan, including: Qasr Al-Mshatta and Qasr Al-Hallabat.[60] The Abbasid Caliphate's campaign to take over the Umayyad's began in Transjordan.[61] A powerful 749 AD earthquake is thought to have contributed to the Umayyads defeat to the Abbasids, who moved the caliphate's capital from Damascus to Baghdad.[61] During Abbasid rule (750–969), several Arab tribes moved northwards and settled in the Levant.[60] As had happened during the Roman era, growth of maritime trade diminished Transjordan's central position, and the area became increasingly impoverished.[62] After the decline of the Abbasids, Transjordan was ruled by the Fatimid Caliphate (969–1070), then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115–1187).[63] The Karak Castle (c. 12th century AD) built by the Crusaders, and later expanded under the Muslim Ayyubids and Mamluks. The Ajloun Castle (c. 12th century AD) built by the Ayyubid leader Saladin for use against the Crusades.The Crusaders constructed several Crusader castles as part of the Lordship of Oultrejordain, including those of Montreal and Al-Karak.[64] The Ayyubids built the Ajloun Castle and rebuilt older castles, to be used as military outposts against the Crusaders.[65] During the Battle of Hattin (1187) near Lake Tiberias just north of Transjordan, the Crusaders lost to Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty (1187–1260).[65] Villages in Transjordan under the Ayyubids became important stops for Muslim pilgrims going to Mecca who travelled along the route that connected Syria to the Hejaz.[66] Several of the Ayyubid castles were used and expanded by the Mamluks (1260–1516), who divided Transjordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus.[67] During the next century Transjordan experienced Mongol attacks, but the Mongols were ultimately repelled by the Mamluks after the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260).[68] In 1516, the Ottoman Caliphate's forces conquered Mamluk territory.[69] Agricultural villages in Transjordan witnessed a period of relative prosperity in the 16th century, but were later abandoned.[70] Transjordan was of marginal importance to the Ottoman authorities.[71] As a result, Ottoman presence was virtually absent and reduced to annual tax collection visits.[70] More Arab Bedouin tribes moved into Transjordan from Syria and the Hejaz during the first three centuries of Ottoman rule, including the Adwan, the Bani Sakhr and the Howeitat.[72] These tribes laid claims to different parts of the region, and with the absence of a meaningful Ottoman authority, Transjordan slid into a state of anarchy that continued until the 19th century.[73] This led to a short-lived occupation by the Wahhabi forces (1803–1812), an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement that emerged in Najd (in modern-day Saudi Arabia).[74] Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of the Egypt Eyalet under the request of the Ottoman sultan, rooted out the Wahhabis by 1818.[75] In 1833 Ibrahim Pasha turned on the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant.[76] His oppressive policies led to the unsuccessful peasants' revolt in Palestine in 1834.[76] Transjordanian cities of As-Salt and Al-Karak were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's forces for harboring a peasants' revolt leader.[76] Egyptian rule was forcibly ended in 1841, with Ottoman rule restored.[76] Only after Ibrahim Pasha's campaign did the Ottoman Empire try to solidify its presence in the Syria Vilayet, which Transjordan was part of.[77] A series of tax and land reforms (Tanzimat) in 1864 brought some prosperity back to agriculture and to abandoned villages; the end of virtually autonomy predictably provoked a backlash in other areas of Transjordan.[77] Muslim Circassians and Chechens, fleeing Russian persecution, sought refuge in the Levant.[78] In Transjordan and with Ottoman support, Circassians first settled in the long-abandoned vicinity of Amman in 1867, and later in the surrounding villages.[78] After having established its administration, conscription and heavy taxation policies by the Ottoman authorities led to revolts in the areas it controlled.[79] Transjordan's tribes in particular revolted during the Shoubak (1905) and the Karak Revolts (1910), which were brutally suppressed.[78] The construction of the Hejaz Railway in 1908–stretching across the length of Transjordan and linking Mecca with Istanbul helped the population economically, as Transjordan became a stopover for pilgrims.[78] However, increasing policies of Turkification and centralization adopted by the Ottoman Empire disenchanted the Arabs of the Levant. Modern eraMain article: Emirate of Transjordan Soldiers of the Hashemite-led Arab Army holding the flag of the Great Arab Revolt in the Hejaz, 1916.Four centuries of stagnation during Ottoman rule came to an end during World War I by the 1916 Arab Revolt, driven by long-term resentment towards the Ottoman authorities and growing Arab nationalism.[78] The revolt was led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, and his sons Abdullah, Faisal and Ali, members of the Hashemite family of the Hejaz. Locally, the revolt garnered the support of the Transjordanian tribes, including Bedouins, Circassians and Christians.[80] The Allies of World War I, including Britain and France, whose imperial interests converged with the Arabist cause, offered support.[81] The revolt started on 5 June 1916 from Medina and pushed northwards until the fighting reached Transjordan in the Battle of Aqaba on 6 July 1917.[82] The revolt reached its climax when Faisal entered Damascus in October 1918, and established an Arab-led military administration in OETA East, later declared as the Arab Kingdom of Syria, both of which Transjordan was part of.[80] During this period, the southernmost region of the country, including Ma'an and Aqaba, was also claimed by the neighbouring Kingdom of Hejaz. The nascent Hashemite Kingdom over Greater Syria was forced to surrender to French troops on 24 July 1920 during the Battle of Maysalun;[83] the French occupied only the northern part of the Syrian Kingdom, leaving Transjordan in a period of interregnum. Arab aspirations failed to gain international recognition, due mainly to the secret 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, which divided the region into French and British spheres of influence, and the 1917 Balfour Declaration, which promised Palestine to Jews.[84] This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as a betrayal of their previous agreements with the British,[85] including the 1915 McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, in which the British stated their willingness to recognize the independence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden under the rule of the Hashemites.[86] As-Salt residents gather on 20 August 1920 during the British High Commissioner's visit to Transjordan.The British High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, travelled to Transjordan on 21 August 1920 to meet with As-Salt's residents. He there declared to a crowd of six hundred Transjordanian notables that the British government would aid the establishment of local governments in Transjordan, which is to be kept separate from that of Palestine. The second meeting took place in Umm Qais on 2 September, where the British government representative Major Fitzroy Somerset received a petition that demanded: an independent Arab government in Transjordan to be led by an Arab prince (emir); land sale in Transjordan to Jews be stopped as well as the prevention of Jewish immigration there; that Britain establish and fund a national army; and that free trade be maintained between Transjordan and the rest of the region.[87] Abdullah, the second son of Sharif Hussein, arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in southern Transjordan on 21 November 1920 to redeem the Greater Syrian Kingdom his brother had lost.[88] Transjordan then was in disarray, widely considered to be ungovernable with its dysfunctional local governments.[89] Abdullah gained the trust of Transjordan's tribal leaders before scrambling to convince them of the benefits of an organized government.[90] Abdullah's successes drew the envy of the British, even when it was in their interest.[91] The British reluctantly accepted Abdullah as ruler of Transjordan after having given him a six-month trial.[92] In March 1921, the British decided to add Transjordan to their Mandate for Palestine, in which they would implement their "Sharifian Solution" policy without applying the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement. On 11 April 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was established with Abdullah as Emir.[93] In September 1922, the Council of the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the terms of the Transjordan memorandum.[94][95] Transjordan remained a British mandate until 1946, but it had been granted a greater level of autonomy than the region west of the Jordan River.[96] Multiple difficulties emerged upon the assumption of power in the region by the Hashemite leadership.[97] In Transjordan, small local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by the Emir's forces with the help of the British.[97] Wahhabis from Najd regained strength and repeatedly raided the southern parts of his territory in (1922–1924), seriously threatening the Emir's position.[97] The Emir was unable to repel those raids without the aid of the local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a military base with a small RAF detachment close to Amman.[97] Post-independenceMain article: Timeline of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan King Abdullah I on 25 May 1946 declaring independence, with Prime Minister Ibrahim Hashem in the background.The Treaty of London, signed by the British Government and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, recognised the independence of the state upon ratification by both countries' parliaments.[98] On 25 May 1946, the day that the treaty was ratified by the Transjordan parliament, Transjordan was raised to the status of a kingdom under the name of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in Arabic, with Abdullah as its first king; although it continued to be referred to as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan in English until 1949.[99] 25 May is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day, a public holiday.[100] Jordan became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955.[12] On 15 May 1948, as part of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan intervened in Palestine together with many other Arab states.[101] Following the war, Jordan controlled the West Bank and on 24 April 1950 Jordan formally annexed these territories after the Jericho conference.[102][103] In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League.[102] On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared that the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a "trustee" pending a future settlement.[104] King Abdullah was assassinated at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant, amid rumors he intended to sign a peace treaty with Israel.[105] Abdullah was succeeded by his son Talal, who would soon abdicate due to illness in favour of his eldest son Hussein.[106] Talal established the country's modern constitution in 1952.[106] Hussein ascended to the throne in 1953 at the age of 17.[105] Jordan witnessed great political uncertainty in the following period.[107] The 1950s were a period of political upheaval, as Nasserism and Pan-Arabism swept the Arab World.[107] On 1 March 1956, King Hussein Arabized the command of the Army by dismissing a number of senior British officers, an act made to remove remaining foreign influence in the country.[108] In 1958, Jordan and neighbouring Hashemite Iraq formed the Arab Federation as a response to the formation of the rival United Arab Republic between Nasser's Egypt and Syria.[109] The union lasted only six months, being dissolved after Iraqi King Faisal II (Hussein's cousin) was deposed by a bloody military coup on 14 July 1958.[109] King Hussein on 21 March 1968 checking an abandoned Israeli tank in the aftermath of the Battle of Karameh.Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt just before Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the Six-Day War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined the war.[110] The Arab states were defeated and Jordan lost control of the West Bank to Israel.[110] The War of Attrition with Israel followed, which included the 1968 Battle of Karameh where the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp on the Jordanian border with the West Bank.[110] Despite the fact that the Palestinians had limited involvement against the Israeli forces, the events at Karameh gained wide recognition and acclaim in the Arab world.[111] As a result, the time period following the battle witnessed an upsurge of support for Palestinian paramilitary elements (the fedayeen) within Jordan from other Arab countries.[111] The fedayeen activities soon became a threat to Jordan's rule of law.[111] In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen and the resultant fighting led to the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a conflict that became known as Black September.[111] In 1973, Egypt and Syria waged the Yom Kippur War on Israel, and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line.[111] Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory.[111] At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, in the aftermath of the Yom-Kippur War, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people".[111] Subsequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.[111] At the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union.[111] The Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed on 26 October 1994.[111] In 1997, in retribution for a bombing, Israeli agents entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior Hamas leader living in Jordan.[111] Bowing to intense international pressure, Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, after King Hussein threatened to annul the peace treaty.[111] Army Chief Habis Majali and Prime Minister Wasfi Tal during a military parade in 1970, two widely acclaimed national figures.On 7 February 1999, Abdullah II ascended the throne upon the death of his father Hussein, who had ruled for nearly 50 years.[112] Abdullah embarked on economic liberalization when he assumed the throne, and his reforms led to an economic boom which continued until 2008.[113] Abdullah II has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships and providing the foundation for Aqaba's free-trade zone and Jordan's flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector.[113] He also set up five other special economic zones.[113] However, during the following years Jordan's economy experienced hardship as it dealt with the effects of the Great Recession and spillover from the Arab Spring.[114] Al-Qaeda under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured.[115] The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.[115] The attack is considered to be a rare event in the country, and Jordan's internal security was dramatically improved afterwards.[115] No major terrorist attacks have occurred since then.[116] Abdullah and Jordan are viewed with contempt by Islamic extremists for the country's peace treaty with Israel, its relationship with the West, and its mostly non-religious laws.[117] The Arab Spring were large-scale protests that erupted in the Arab World in 2011, demanding economic and political reforms.[118] Many of these protests tore down regimes in some Arab nations, leading to instability that ended with violent civil wars.[118] In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abdullah replaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms including: reforming the Constitution, and laws governing public freedoms and elections.[118] Proportional representation was re-introduced to the Jordanian parliament in the 2016 general election, a move which he said would eventually lead to establishing parliamentary governments.[119] Jordan was left largely unscathed from the violence that swept the region despite an influx of 1.4 million Syrian refugees into the natural resources-lacking country and the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[119] On 4 April 2021, 19 people were arrested, including Prince Hamzeh, the former crown prince of Jordan, who was placed under house arrest, after having been accused of working to "destabilize" the kingdom. GeographyMain article: Geography of Jordan Wadi Rum is a valley in southern Jordan whose resemblance to the surface of Mars has made it a popular tourist and filming location, including scenes of The Martian.Jordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe,[8] in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization.[120] It is 89,341 square kilometres (34,495 sq mi) large, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) long between its northernmost and southernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectively.[20] The kingdom lies between 29° and 34° N, and 34° and 40° E. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south and the east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, and Israel and Palestine (West Bank) to the west The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal water streams.[20] Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north-western part of the kingdom due to its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall.[121] These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and As-Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al-Karak and Aqaba in the southwest.[121] Major towns in the eastern part of the country are the oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished.[120] In the west, a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley.[120] The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel.[120] Jordan has a 26 kilometres (16 mi) shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, but is otherwise landlocked.[9] The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the occupied Golan Heights) to the north.[9] The other boundaries are formed by several international and local agreements and do not follow well-defined natural features.[120] The highest point is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, while the lowest is the Dead Sea −420 m (−1,378 ft), the lowest land point on earth.[120] The Dead Sea, which is located along Jordan's western border, is the lowest point on earth and a natural resort that has attracted visitors from across the region for thousands of years.Jordan has a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems and biota due to its varied landscapes and environments.[122] The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was set up in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan's natural resources.[123] Nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve and the Mujib Nature Reserve.[123] ClimateMain articles: Climate of Jordan and Climate change in JordanThe climate in Jordan varies greatly. Generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, there are greater contrasts in temperature and less rainfall.[20] The country's average elevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) (SL).[20] The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert.[124] Although the desert parts of the kingdom reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool.[125] Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 °C (90 °F) and sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) between July and August.[125] The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 11.08 °C (52 °F).[124] Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas.[124] BiodiversityMain article: Wildlife of Jordan A forest in Ajloun, northern Jordan. Forests make less than 2% of Jordan, making it among the world's least forested countries.Over 2,000 plant species have been recorded in Jordan.[126] Many of the flowering plants bloom in the spring after the winter rains and the type of vegetation depends largely on the levels of precipitation. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in forests, while further south and east the vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe-type vegetation.[127] Forests cover 1.5 million dunums (1,500 km2), less than 2% of Jordan, making Jordan among the world's least forested countries, the international average being 15%.[128] Plant species and genera include the Aleppo pine, Sarcopoterium, Salvia dominica, black iris, Tamarix, Anabasis, Artemisia, Acacia, Mediterranean cypress and Phoenecian juniper.[129] The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in natural forests of pine, deciduous oak, evergreen oak, pistachio and wild olive.[130] Mammal and reptile species include, the long-eared hedgehog, Nubian ibex, wild boar, fallow deer, Arabian wolf, desert monitor, honey badger, glass snake, caracal, golden jackal and the roe deer, among others.[131][132][133] Bird include the hooded crow, Eurasian jay, lappet-faced vulture, barbary falcon, hoopoe, pharaoh eagle-owl, common cuckoo, Tristram's starling, Palestine sunbird, Sinai rosefinch, lesser kestrel, house crow and the white-spectacled bulbul.[134] Four terrestrial ecoregions lie with Jordan's borders: Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Mesopotamian shrub desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.[135] Politics and governmentMain article: Politics of JordanJordan is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Jordan's constitution, adopted in 1952 and amended a number of times since, is the legal framework that governs the monarch, government, bicameral legislature and judiciary.[136] The king retains wide executive and legislative powers from the government and parliament.[137] The king exercises his powers through the government that he appoints for a four-year term, which is responsible before the parliament that is made up of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judiciary is independent according to the constitution, but in practice often lacks independence.[136] Abdullah IIMonarch since 1999 Bisher KhasawnehPrime Minister since 2020The king is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. He can declare war and peace, ratify laws and treaties, convene and close legislative sessions, call and postpone elections, dismiss the government and dissolve the parliament.[136] The appointed government can also be dismissed through a majority vote of no confidence by the elected House of Representatives. After a bill is proposed by the government, it must be approved by the House of Representatives then the Senate, and becomes law after being ratified by the king. A royal veto on legislation can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in a joint session of both houses. The parliament also has the right of interpellation.[136] The 65 members of the upper Senate are directly appointed by the king, the constitution mandates that they be veteran politicians, judges and generals who previously served in the government or in the House of Representatives.[138] The 130 members of the lower House of Representatives are elected through party-list proportional representation in 23 constituencies for a 4-year term.[139] Minimum quotas exist in the House of Representatives for women (15 seats, though they won 20 seats in the 2016 election), Christians (9 seats) and Circassians and Chechens (3 seats).[140] Courts are divided into three categories: civil, religious, and special.[141] The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters, including cases brought against the government.[141] The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal,[141] High Administrative Courts which hear cases relating to administrative matters,[142] and the Constitutional Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding the constitutionality of laws.[143] Although Islam is the state religion, the constitution preserves religious and personal freedoms. Religious law only extends to matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance in religious courts, and is partially based on Islamic Sharia law.[144] The special court deals with cases forwarded by the civil one.[145] The capital city of Jordan is Amman, located in north-central Jordan.[10] Jordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (informally grouped into three regions: northern, central, southern). These are subdivided into a total of 52 districts (Liwaa'), which are further divided into neighbourhoods in urban areas or into towns in rural ones.[146] The House of Representatives during a parliamentary sessionThe current monarch, Abdullah II, ascended to the throne in February 1999 after the death of his father King Hussein. Abdullah re-affirmed Jordan's commitment to the peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. He refocused the government's agenda on economic reform, during his first year. King Abdullah's eldest son, Prince Hussein, is the current Crown Prince of Jordan.[147] The current prime minister is Bisher Khasawneh who received his position on 12 October 2020.[148] Abdullah had announced his intentions of turning Jordan into a parliamentary system, where the largest bloc in parliament forms a government. However, the underdevelopment of political parties in a country where tribal identity remains strong, has hampered such moves.[149] Jordan has around 50 political parties representing nationalist, leftist, Islamist, and liberal ideologies.[150] Political parties contested a fifth of the seats in the 2016 elections, the remainder belonging to independent politicians.[151] According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as "Not Free" in the Freedom in the World 2022 report.[152] Jordan ranked 94th globally in the Cato Institute's Human Freedom Index in 2021,[153] and ranked 58th in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International in 2021.[154] In the 2022 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 151st out of 180 countries worldwide in the Political Context, scoring was 40 on a scale from 0 (least free) to 105 (most free). The report added "the Arab Spring and the Syrian conflict have led the authorities to tighten their grip on the media and, in particular, the Internet, despite an outcry from civil society".[155] Jordanian media consists of public and private institutions. Popular Jordanian newspapers include Al Ghad and the Jordan Times. Al-Mamlaka, Ro'ya and Jordan TV are some Jordanian TV channels.[156] Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015.[157] There are concerns that the government will use the COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan to silence dissidents.[158][159] Largest citiesMain article: List of cities in Jordan vteLargest cities or towns in JordanAccording to the 2015 Census[160]RankNameGovernoratePop.AmmanAmmanZarqaZarqa1AmmanAmman Governorate1,812,059IrbidIrbidRusseifaRusseifa2ZarqaZarqa Governorate635,1603IrbidIrbid Governorate502,7144RusseifaZarqa Governorate472,6045Ar-RamthaAmman Governorate155,6936AqabaAqaba Governorate148,3987Al-MafraqMafraq Governorate106,0088MadabaMadaba Governorate105,3539As-SaltBalqa Governorate99,89010JerashJerash Governorate50,745 Administrative divisionsThe first level subdivision in Jordan is the muhafazah or governorate. The governorates are divided into liwa or districts, which are often further subdivided into qda or sub-districts.[161] Control for each administrative unit is in a "chief town" (administrative centre) known as a nahia.[161] MapGovernorateCapitalPopulationSyriaIraqIsraelSaudi ArabiaPalestineIrbidJerashAjlounMafraqZarqaAmmanBalqaMadabaKarakTafilahMa'anAqabaNorthern region1IrbidIrbid1,770,1582MafraqMafraq549,9483JerashJerash237,0594AjlounAjloun176,080Central region5AmmanAmman4,007,2566ZarqaZarqa1,364,8787BalqaAs-Salt491,7098MadabaMadaba189,192Southern region9KarakAl-Karak316,62910AqabaAqaba188,16011Ma'anMa'an144,08312TafilahTafila96,291Foreign relationsMain article: Foreign relations of Jordan U.S. President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania Trump with King Abdullah II and Queen Rania of Jordan at the White House, 2017.The kingdom has followed a pro-Western foreign policy and maintained close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. During the first Gulf War (1990), these relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and its maintenance of relations with Iraq. Later, Jordan restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq and in the Southwest Asia peace process. After King Hussein's death in 1999, relations between Jordan and the Persian Gulf countries greatly improved.[162] Jordan is a key ally of the US and UK and, together with Egypt and the United Arab Emirates, is one of only three Arab nations to have signed peace treaties with Israel, Jordan's direct neighbour.[163] Jordan views an independent Palestinian state with the 1967 borders, as part of the two-state solution and of supreme national interest.[164] The ruling Hashemite dynasty has had custodianship over holy sites in Jerusalem since 1924, a position re-inforced in the Israel–Jordan peace treaty. Turmoil in Jerusalem's Al-Aqsa mosque between Israelis and Palestinians created tensions between Jordan and Israel concerning the former's role in protecting the Muslim and Christian sites in Jerusalem.[165] Jordan is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the Arab League.[166][167] It enjoys "advanced status" with the European Union and is part of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims to increase links between the EU and its neighbours.[168] Jordan and Morocco tried to join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 2011, but the Gulf countries offered a five-year development aid programme instead.[169] MilitaryMain article: Jordanian Armed ForcesThe first organised army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion".[97] The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946.[170] Jordan's capture of the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War proved that the Arab Legion, known today as the Jordan Armed Forces, was the most effective among the Arab troops involved in the war.[170] The Royal Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnel, is considered to be among the most professional in the region, due to being particularly well-trained and organised.[170] The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan's critical position in the Middle East.[170] The development of Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the military to react rapidly to threats to homeland security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond.[171] Jordan provides extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries.[172] There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the world. Jordan ranks third internationally in participation in U.N. peacekeeping missions,[173] with one of the highest levels of peacekeeping troop contributions of all U.N. member states.[174] Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the region.[175] In 2014, Jordan joined an aerial bombardment campaign by an international coalition led by the United States against the Islamic State as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War.[176] In 2015, Jordan participated in the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.[177] Law enforcementMain articles: Law enforcement in Jordan and Law of Jordan An Amman City Centre Police patrol vehicle. Jordan's law enforcement was ranked 37th globally by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index.Jordan's law enforcement is under the purview of the Public Security Directorate (which includes approximately 50,000 persons) and the General Directorate of Gendarmerie, both of which are subordinate to the country's Ministry of Interior. The first police force in the Jordanian state was organised after the fall of the Ottoman Empire on 11 April 1921.[178] Until 1956 police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. After that year the Public Safety Directorate was established.[178] The number of female police officers is increasing. In the 1970s, it was the first Arab country to include women in its police force.[179] Jordan's law enforcement was ranked 37th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East, in terms of police services' performance, by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index.[13][180] EconomyMain article: Economy of Jordan Change in per capita GDP of Jordan, 1950–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International Geary-Khamis dollars.Jordan is classified by the World Bank as a lower middle income country.[181] Approximately 15.7% of the population lives below the national poverty line as of 2018,[182] while almost a third fell below the national poverty line during some time of the year—known as transient poverty.[183] The economy, which has a GDP of $39.453 billion (as of 2016),[5] grew at an average rate of 8% per annum between 2004 and 2008, and around 2.6% 2010 onwards.[20] GDP per capita rose by 351% in the 1970s, declined 30% in the 1980s, and rose 36% in the 1990s—currently $9,406 per capita by purchasing power parity.[184] The Jordanian economy is one of the smallest economies in the region, and the country's populace suffers from relatively high rates of unemployment and poverty.[20] Jordan's economy is relatively well-diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one-third of GDP; transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction account for one-fifth, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly another fifth.[19] Net official development assistance to Jordan in 2009 totalled US$761 million; according to the government, approximately two-thirds of this was allocated as grants, of which half was direct budget support.[185] The official currency is the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the IMF's special drawing rights (SDRs), equivalent to an exchange rate of 1 US$ ≡ 0.709 dinar, or approximately 1 dinar ≡ 1.41044 dollars.[186] In 2000, Jordan joined the World Trade Organization and signed the Jordan–United States Free Trade Agreement, thus becoming the first Arab country to establish a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan enjoys advanced status with the EU, which has facilitated greater access to export to European markets.[187] Due to slow domestic growth, high energy and food subsidies and a bloated public-sector workforce, Jordan usually runs annual budget deficits.[188] View of a part of the capital AmmanThe Great Recession and the turmoil caused by the Arab Spring have depressed Jordan's GDP growth, damaging trade, industry, construction and tourism.[20] Tourist arrivals have dropped sharply since 2011.[189] Since 2011, the natural gas pipeline in Sinai supplying Jordan from Egypt was attacked 32 times by Islamic State affiliates. Jordan incurred billions of dollars in losses because it had to substitute more expensive heavy-fuel oils to generate electricity.[190] In November 2012, the government cut subsidies on fuel, increasing its price.[191] The decision, which was later revoked, caused large scale protests to break out across the country.[188][189] Jordan's total foreign debt in 2011 was $19 billion, representing 60% of its GDP. In 2016, the debt reached $35.1 billion representing 93% of its GDP.[114] This substantial increase is attributed to effects of regional instability causing a decrease in tourist activity, decreased foreign investments, increased military expenditures, attacks on Egyptian pipelines, the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria, expenses from hosting Syrian refugees, and accumulated interest from loans.[114] According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6% of the GDP and 25% of the government's annual revenue.[192] Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63% of the total costs are covered by Jordan.[193] An austerity programme was adopted by the government which aims to reduce Jordan's debt-to-GDP ratio to 77 percent by 2021.[194] The programme succeeded in preventing the debt from rising above 95% in 2018.[195] The proportion of well-educated and skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region in sectors such as ICT and industry, due to a relatively modern educational system. This has attracted large foreign investments to Jordan and has enabled the country to export its workforce to Persian Gulf countries.[17] Flows of remittances to Jordan grew rapidly, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of external funding.[196] Remittances from Jordanian expatriates were $3.8 billion in 2015, a notable rise in the amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 billion, making Jordan the fourth-largest recipient in the region.[197] TransportationMain article: Transport in Jordan Queen Alia International Airport near Amman was chosen as the best airport in the Middle East for 2014 and 2015 by ASQ.Jordan is ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the 2010 World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructural development is necessitated by its role as a transit country for goods and services mainly to Palestine and Iraq.[198] According to data from the Jordanian Ministry of Public Works and Housing, as of 2011, the Jordanian road network consisted of 2,878 km (1,788 mi) of main roads; 2,592 km (1,611 mi) of rural roads and 1,733 km (1,077 mi) of side roads. The Hejaz Railway built during the Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca will act as a base for future railway expansion plans. Currently, the railway has little civilian activity; it is primarily used for transporting goods. A national railway project is currently undergoing studies and seeking funding sources.[199] Jordan has three commercial airports, all receiving and dispatching international flights. Two are in Amman and the third is in Aqaba, King Hussein International Airport. Amman Civil Airport serves several regional routes and charter flights while Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and is the hub for Royal Jordanian Airlines, the flag carrier. Queen Alia International Airport expansion was completed in 2013 with new terminals costing $700 million, to handle over 16 million passengers annually.[200] It is now considered a state-of-the-art airport and was awarded 'the best airport by region: Middle East' for 2014 and 2015 by Airport Service Quality (ASQ) survey, the world's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark programme.[201] The Port of Aqaba is the only port in Jordan. In 2006, the port was ranked as being the "Best Container Terminal" in the Middle East by Lloyd's List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for other neighbouring countries, its location between four countries and three continents, being an exclusive gateway for the local market and for the improvements it has recently witnessed.[202] TourismMain article: Tourism in Jordan Al-Maghtas ruins on the Jordanian side of the Jordan River, believed by many to have been the location of the Baptism of Jesus and the ministry of John the BaptistThe tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of the economy and is a large source of employment, hard currency, and economic growth. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries.[18] The tourism sector in Jordan has been severely affected by regional turbulence.[203] The most recent blow to the tourism sector was caused by the Arab Spring. Jordan experienced a 70% decrease in the number of tourists from 2010 to 2016.[204] Tourist numbers started to recover as of 2017.[204] According to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Jordan is home to around 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites.[205] Some very well preserved historical cities include Petra and Jerash, the former being Jordan's most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom.[204] Jordan, as part of the Holy Land, has numerous biblical sites, including: Al-Maghtas—a traditional location for the Baptism of Jesus, Mount Nebo, Umm ar-Rasas, Madaba and Machaerus.[206] Islamic sites include shrines of the prophet Muhammad's companions such as 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah and Muadh ibn Jabal.[207] Ajlun Castle built by Muslim Ayyubid leader Saladin in the 12th century AD during his wars with the Crusaders, is also a popular tourist attraction.[8] The Dana Biosphere Reserve in southern Jordan lies along the Jordan Trail, a hiking path that is gaining popularityModern entertainment, recreation and souqs in urban areas, mostly in Amman, also attract tourists. Recently, the nightlife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and the number of bars, discos and nightclubs is on the rise.[208] Alcohol is widely available in tourist restaurants, liquor stores and even some supermarkets.[209] Valleys including Wadi Mujib and hiking trails in different parts of the country attract adventurers. Hiking is getting more and more popular among tourists and locals. Places such as Dana Biosphere Reserve and Petra offer numerous signposted hiking trails. Moreover, seaside recreation is present on the shores of Aqaba and the Dead Sea through several international resorts.[210] Jordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan's Private Hospitals Association found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. Jordan is the region's top medical tourism destination, as rated by the World Bank, and fifth in the world overall.[211] The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to the ongoing civil wars in those countries. Jordanian doctors and medical staff have gained experience in dealing with war patients through years of receiving such cases from various conflict zones in the region.[212] Jordan also is a hub for natural treatment methods in both Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a 'natural spa'. It contains 10 times more salt than the average ocean, which makes it impossible to sink in. The high salt concentration of the Dead Sea has been proven therapeutic for many skin diseases.[213] The uniqueness of this lake attracts several Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in the hotel sector in the area.[214] The Jordan Trail, a 650 km (400 mi) hiking trail stretching the entire country from north to south, crossing several of Jordan's attractions was established in 2015.[215] The trail aims to revive the Jordanian tourism sector.[215] Natural resourcesSee also: Energy in JordanJordan is among the most water-scarce nations on earth. At 97 cubic metres of water per person per year, it is considered to face "absolute water scarcity" according to the Falkenmark Classification.[216] Scarce resources to begin with have been aggravated by the massive influx of Syrian refugees into Jordan, many of whom face issues of access to clean water due to living in informal settlements (see "Immigrants and Refugees" below).[217] Jordan shares both of its two main surface water resources, the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers, with neighbouring countries, adding complexity to water allocation decisions.[216] Water from Disi aquifer and ten major dams historically played a large role in providing Jordan's need for fresh water.[218] The Jawa Dam in northeastern Jordan, which dates back to the fourth millennium BC, is the world's oldest dam.[219] The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate. Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing sinkholes. The Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to the country and to Israel and Palestine, while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels. The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2019 and to be completed in 2021.[220] A phosphate train at Ram stationNatural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987, however, the estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, a minuscule quantity compared with its oil-rich neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to generate a small amount of Jordan's electricity needs.[221] This led to a reliance on importing oil to generate almost all of its electricity. Regional instability over the decades halted oil and gas supply to the kingdom from various sources, making it incur billions of dollars in losses. Jordan built a liquified natural gas port in Aqaba in 2012 to temporarily substitute the supply, while formulating a strategy to rationalize energy consumption and to diversify its energy sources. Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s in the mountainous areas, so renewables proved a promising sector.[222] King Abdullah inaugurated large-scale renewable energy projects in the 2010s including the 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm, the 53 MW Shams Ma'an, and the 103 MW Quweira solar power plants, with several more projects planned. By early 2019, it was reported that more than 1090 MW of renewable energy projects had been completed, contributing to 8% of Jordan's electricity up from 3% in 2011, while 92% was generated from gas.[223] After having initially set the percentage of renewable energy Jordan aimed to generate by 2020 at 10%, the government announced in 2018 that it sought to beat that figure and aim for 20%.[224] Jordan has the 5th largest oil-shale reserves in the world, which could be commercially exploited in the central and northwestern regions of the country.[225] Official figures estimate the kingdom's oil shale reserves at more than 70 billion tonnes. The extraction of oil-shale had been delayed a couple of years due to technological difficulties and the relatively higher costs.[226] The government overcame the difficulties and in 2017 laid the groundbreaking for the Attarat Power Plant, a $2.2 billion oil shale-dependent power plant that is expected to generate 470 MW after it is completed in 2020.[227] Jordan also aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves by tapping nuclear energy. The original plan involved constructing two 1000 MW reactors but has been scrapped due to financial constraints.[228] Currently, the country's Atomic Energy Commission is considering building small modular reactors instead, whose capacities hover below 500 MW and can provide new water sources through desalination. In 2018, the commission announced that Jordan was in talks with multiple companies to build the country's first commercial nuclear plant, a helium-cooled reactor that is scheduled for completion by 2025.[229] Phosphate mines in the south have made Jordan one of the largest producers and exporters of the mineral in the world.[230] Industry The Aqaba Flagpole in the southernmost city of Aqaba, Jordan's only coastal outletJordan's well developed industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26% of the GDP in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2%; construction, 4.6%; and mining, 3.1%). More than 21% of Jordan's labor force was employed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6% of the GDP.[231] The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, cement, clothes, and fertilisers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. Petra Engineering Industries Company, which is considered to be one of the main pillars of Jordanian industry, has gained international recognition with its air-conditioning units reaching NASA.[232] Jordan is now considered to be a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region led by Jordanian pharmaceutical company Hikma.[233] Jordan's military industry thrived after the Jordan Design and Development Bureau defence company was established by King Abdullah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a global hub in security research and development. It manufactures all types of military products, many of which are presented at the bi-annually held international military exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, KADDB exported $72 million worth of industries to over 42 countries.[234] Science and technologyMain article: Science and technology in Jordan The 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm in southern Jordan is the first and largest onshore wind farm in the Middle East.[235]Science and technology is the country's fastest developing economic sector. This growth is occurring across multiple industries, including information and communications technology (ICT) and nuclear technology. Jordan contributes 75% of the Arabic content on the Internet.[236] In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for more than 84,000 jobs and contributed to 12% of the GDP. More than 400 companies are active in telecom, information technology and video game development. There are 600 companies operating in active technologies and 300 start-up companies.[236] Jordan was ranked 81st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 86th in 2019.[237][238][239][240] Nuclear science and technology is also expanding. The Jordan Research and Training Reactor, which began working in 2016, is a 5 MW training reactor located at the Jordan University of Science and Technology in Ar Ramtha.[241] The facility is the first nuclear reactor in the country and will provide Jordan with radioactive isotopes for medical usage and provide training to students to produce a skilled workforce for the country's planned commercial nuclear reactors.[241] Jordan was also selected as the location for the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) facility, supported by UNESCO and CERN.[242] This particle accelerator that was opened in 2017 will allow collaboration between scientists from various rival Middle Eastern countries.[242] The facility is the only particle accelerator in the Middle East, and one of only 60 synchrotron radiation facilities in the world.[242] DemographicsMain article: Demographics of JordanSee also: List of cities in JordanHistorical populationsYearPop.±% p.a.1920200,000— 1922225,000+6.07%1948400,000+2.24%1952586,200+10.03%1961900,800+4.89%19792,133,000+4.91%19944,139,500+4.52%20045,100,000+2.11%20159,531,712+5.85%201810,171,480+2.19%Source: Department of Statistics[243]The 2015 census showed Jordan's population to be 9,531,712 (female: 47%; males: 53%). Around 2.9 million (30%) were non-citizens, a figure including refugees, and illegal immigrants.[4] There were 1,977,534 households in Jordan in 2015, with an average of 4.8 persons per household (compared to 6.7 persons per household for the census of 1979).[4] The capital and largest city of Jordan is Amman, which is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities and one of the most modern in the Arab world.[244] The population of Amman was 65,754 in 1946, but exceeded 4 million by 2015. Arabs make up about 98% of the population. The remaining 2% consist largely of peoples from the Caucasus including Circassians, Armenians, and Chechens, along with smaller minority groups.[20] About 84.1% of the population live in urban areas.[20] Refugees, immigrants and expatriatesJordan was home to 2,175,491 Palestinian refugees as of December 2016; most of them, but not all, had been granted Jordanian citizenship.[245] The first wave of Palestinian refugees arrived during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and peaked in the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1990 Gulf War. In the past, Jordan had given many Palestinian refugees citizenship, however recently Jordanian citizenship is given only in rare cases. 370,000 of these Palestinians live in UNRWA refugee camps.[245] Following the capture of the West Bank by Israel in 1967, Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to thwart any attempt to permanently resettle from the West Bank to Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yellow cards guaranteeing them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship if requested.[246] An aerial view of a portion of the Zaatari refugee camp which contains a population of 80,000 Syrian refugees, the largest Syrian refugee camp in the world.Up to 1,000,000 Iraqis moved to Jordan following the Iraq War in 2003,[247] and most of them have returned. In 2015, their number in Jordan was 130,911. Many Iraqi Christians (Assyrians/Chaldeans) however settled temporarily or permanently in Jordan.[248] Immigrants also include 15,000 Lebanese who arrived following the 2006 Lebanon War.[249] Since 2010, over 1.4 million Syrian refugees have fled to Jordan to escape the violence in Syria,[4] the largest population being in the Zaatari refugee camp. The kingdom has continued to demonstrate hospitality, despite the substantial strain the flux of Syrian refugees places on the country. The effects are largely affecting Jordanian communities, as the vast majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps. The refugee crisis effects include competition for job opportunities, water resources and other state provided services, along with the strain on the national infrastructure.[16] In 2007, there were up to 150,000 Assyrian Christians; most are Eastern Aramaic speaking refugees from Iraq.[250] Kurds number some 30,000, and like the Assyrians, many are refugees from Iraq, Iran and Turkey.[251] Descendants of Armenians that sought refuge in the Levant during the 1915 Armenian genocide number approximately 5,000 persons, mainly residing in Amman.[252] A small number of ethnic Mandeans also reside in Jordan, again mainly refugees from Iraq.[253] Around 12,000 Iraqi Christians have sought refuge in Jordan after the Islamic State took the city of Mosul in 2014.[254] Several thousand Libyans, Yemenis and Sudanese have also sought asylum in Jordan to escape instability and violence in their respective countries.[16] The 2015 Jordanian census recorded that there were 1,265,000 Syrians, 636,270 Egyptians, 634,182 Palestinians, 130,911 Iraqis, 31,163 Yemenis, 22,700 Libyans and 197,385 from other nationalities residing in the country.[4] There are around 1.2 million illegal, and 500,000 legal migrant workers and expatriates in the kingdom.[255] Thousands of foreign women, mostly from the Middle East and Eastern Europe, work in nightclubs, hotels and bars across the kingdom.[256][257][258] American and European expatriate communities are concentrated in the capital, as the city is home to many international organisations and diplomatic missions.[209] ReligionMain article: Religion in JordanSunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 95% of the country's population; in turn, 93% of those self-identify as Sunnis.[259] There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims,[260] and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees.[261] Muslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries from other religions face societal and legal discrimination.[262] Marsa Zayed mosque in Aqaba An eastern Orthodox church during a snowstorm in AmmanJordan contains some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, dating as early as the 1st century AD after the crucifixion of Jesus.[263] Christians today make up about 4% of the population,[264] down from 20% in 1930, though their absolute number has grown.[265] This is due to high immigration rates of Muslims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians to the West and higher birth rates for Muslims.[266] Jordanian Christians number around 250,000, all of whom are Arabic-speaking, according to a 2014 estimate by the Orthodox Church, though the study excluded minority Christian groups and the thousands of Western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan.[264] Christians are exceptionally well integrated in Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom.[267] Christians traditionally occupy two cabinet posts, and are reserved nine seats out of the 130 in the parliament.[268] The highest political position reached by a Christian is the Deputy Prime Minister, currently held by Rajai Muasher.[269] Christians are also influential in the media.[270] Smaller religious minorities include Druze, Baháʼís and Mandaeans. Most Jordanian Druze live in the eastern oasis town of Azraq, some villages on the Syrian border, and the city of Zarqa, while most Jordanian Baháʼís live in the village of Adassiyeh bordering the Jordan Valley.[271] It is estimated that 1,400 Mandaeans live in Amman; they came from Iraq after the 2003 invasion fleeing persecution.[272] LanguagesThe official language is Modern Standard Arabic, a literary language taught in the schools.[273] Most Jordanians natively speak one of the non-standard Arabic dialects known as Jordanian Arabic. Jordanian Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic.[273] Chechen, Circassian, Armenian, Tagalog, and Russian are popular among their communities.[274] French is offered as an elective in many schools, mainly in the private sector.[273] German is an increasingly popular language; it has been introduced at a larger scale since the establishment of the German-Jordanian University in 2005.[275] Health and educationMain articles: Health in Jordan and Education in Jordan Jordanian school girls pictured reading in a public school. Jordan's total youth female literacy rate (15 – 24 years) was 99.37% in 2015.[276]Life expectancy in Jordan was around 74.8 years in 2017.[20] The leading cause of death is cardiovascular diseases, followed by cancer.[277] Childhood immunization rates have increased steadily over the past 15 years; by 2002 immunisations and vaccines reached more than 95% of children under five.[278] In 1950, water and sanitation was available to only 10% of the population; in 2015 it reached 98% of Jordanians.[279] Jordan prides itself on its health services, some of the best in the region.[280] Qualified medics, a favourable investment climate and Jordan's stability has contributed to the success of this sector.[281] The country's health care system is divided between public and private institutions. On 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospital (as the biggest private hospital) was the first general specialty hospital to gain the international accreditation JCAHO.[278] The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading cancer treatment centre.[282] 66% of Jordanians have medical insurance.[4] The Jordanian educational system comprises 2 years of pre-school education, 10 years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocational education, after which the students sit for the General Certificate of Secondary Education Exam (Tawjihi) exams.[283] Scholars may attend either private or public schools. According to the UNESCO, the literacy rate in 2015 was 98.01% and is considered to be the highest in the Middle East and the Arab world, and one of the highest in the world.[276] UNESCO ranked Jordan's educational system 18th out of 94 nations for providing gender equality in education.[284] Jordan has the highest number of researchers in research and development per million people among all the 57 countries that are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). In Jordan there are 8060 researchers per million people, while the world average is 2532 per million.[285] Primary education is free in Jordan.[286] Jordan has 10 public universities, 19 private universities and 54 community colleges, of which 14 are public, 24 private and others affiliated with the Jordanian Armed Forces, the Civil Defense Department, the Ministry of Health and UNRWA.[287] There are over 200,000 Jordanian students enrolled in universities each year. An additional 20,000 Jordanians pursue higher education abroad primarily in the United States and Europe.[288] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Jordan (UJ) (1,220th worldwide), Jordan University of Science & Technology (JUST) (1,729th) and Hashemite University (2,176th).[289] UJ and JUST occupy 8th and 10th between Arab universities.[290] Jordan has 2,000 researchers per million people.[291] CultureMain article: Culture of JordanArt and museumsMain articles: Jordanian art, Cinema of Jordan, and Music of Jordan Jordanian folklore band playing bagpipes in Jerash.Many institutions in Jordan aim to increase cultural awareness of Jordanian Art and to represent Jordan's artistic movements in fields such as paintings, sculpture, graffiti and photography.[292] The art scene has been developing in the past few years[293] and Jordan has been a haven for artists from surrounding countries.[294] In January 2016, for the first time ever, a Jordanian film called Theeb was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film.[295] The largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum. It contains much of the valuable archaeological findings in the country, including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Neolithic limestone statues of 'Ain Ghazal and a copy of the Mesha Stele.[296] Most museums in Jordan are located in Amman including The Children's Museum Jordan, The Martyr's Memorial and Museum and the Royal Automobile Museum. Museums outside Amman include the Aqaba Archaeological Museum.[297] The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is a major contemporary art museum located in Amman.[297] Music in Jordan is now developing with a lot of new bands and artists, who are now popular in the Middle East. Artists such as Omar Al-Abdallat, Toni Qattan, Diana Karazon and Hani Mitwasi have increased the popularity of Jordanian music.[298] The Jerash Festival is an annual music event that features popular Arab singers.[298] Pianist and composer Zade Dirani has gained wide international popularity.[299] There is also an increasing growth of alternative Arabic rock bands, who are dominating the scene in the Arab World, including: El Morabba3, Autostrad, JadaL, Akher Zapheer and Aziz Maraka.[300] Jordan unveiled its first underwater military museum off the coast of Aqaba. Several military vehicles, including tanks, troop carriers and a helicopter are in the museum.[301] SportsMain article: Sport in JordanWhile both team and individual sports are widely played in Jordan, the Kingdom has enjoyed its biggest international achievements in taekwondo. The highlight came at the 2016 Rio Olympic Games when Ahmad Abu Ghaush won Jordan's first ever medal[302] of any colour at the Games by taking gold in the −67 kg weight.[303] Medals have continued to be won at World and Asian level in the sport since to establish Taekwondo as the Kingdom's favourite sport alongside football[209] and basketball.[304] Football is the most popular sport in Jordan.[305] The national football team came within a play-off of reaching the 2014 World Cup in Brazil[306] when they lost a two-legged play-off against Uruguay.[307] They previously reached the quarter-finals of the Asian Cup in 2004 and 2011. Jordan has a strong policy for inclusive sport and invests heavily in encouraging girls and women to participate in all sports. The women's football team gaining reputation,[308] and in March 2016 ranked 58th in the world.[309] In 2016, Jordan hosted the FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, with 16 teams representing six continents. The tournament was held in four stadiums in the three Jordanian cities of Amman, Zarqa and Irbid. It was the first women's sports tournament in the Middle East.[310] Basketball is another sport that Jordan continues to punch above its weight in, having qualified to the FIBA 2010 World Basketball Cup and more recently reaching the 2019 World Cup in China.[311] Jordan came within a point of reaching the 2012 Olympics after losing the final of the 2010 Asian Cup to China by the narrowest of margins, 70–69, and settling for silver instead. Jordan's national basketball team is participating in various international and Middle Eastern tournaments. Local basketball teams include: Al-Orthodoxi Club, Al-Riyadi, Zain, Al-Hussein and Al-Jazeera.[312] Boxing, karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai, and ju-jitsu are also popular. Less common sports are also gaining popularity. Rugby is increasing in popularity, a rugby union is recognized by the Jordan Olympic Committee which supervises three national teams.[313] Although cycling is not widespread in Jordan, the sport is developing as a lifestyle and a new way to travel especially among the youth.[314] In 2014, a NGO Make Life Skate Life completed construction of the 7Hills Skatepark, the first skatepark in the country located in Downtown Amman.[315] CuisineMain article: Jordanian cuisine Mansaf, the traditional dish of Jordan. Inspired from Bedouin culture, it is a symbol of Jordanian hospitality.As the eighth-largest producer of olives in the world, olive oil is the main cooking oil in Jordan.[316] A common appetizer is hummus, which is a puree of chick peas blended with tahini, lemon, and garlic. Ful medames is another well-known appetiser. A typical worker's meal, it has since made its way to the tables of the upper class. A typical Jordanian meze often contains koubba maqliya, labaneh, baba ghanoush, tabbouleh, olives and pickles.[317] Meze is generally accompanied by the Levantine alcoholic drink arak, which is made from grapes and aniseed and is similar to ouzo, rakı and pastis. Jordanian wine and beer are also sometimes used. The same dishes, served without alcoholic drinks, can also be termed "muqabbilat" (starters) in Arabic.[209] The most distinctive Jordanian dish is mansaf, the national dish of Jordan. The dish is a symbol for Jordanian hospitality and is influenced by the Bedouin culture. Mansaf is eaten on different occasions such as funerals, weddings and on religious holidays. It consists of a plate of rice with meat that was boiled in thick yogurt, sprayed with pine nuts and sometimes herbs. As an old tradition, the dish is eaten using one's hands, but the tradition is not always used.[317] Simple fresh fruit is often served towards the end of a Jordanian meal, but there is also dessert, such as baklava, hareeseh, knafeh, halva and qatayef, a dish made specially for Ramadan. In Jordanian cuisine, drinking coffee and tea flavoured with na'na or meramiyyeh is almost a ritual.[318] See alsoflagJordan portalIndex of Jordan-related articlesOutline of Jordan

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