Description: 1865 to 1901 Three Pence Coins These are solid silver coins minted over 120 / 150 years ago The coin you receive will be in similar condition to the one in the photo but it may not be the same I will send you the best coin i have from that year if you message me before you buy and I can send you a photo of the coin you will receive If you are unhappy with the coin you get just return it for a full refund. I will refund your return postage costs also In Good Condition given they are over one hundred years old Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake Souvenir of Great Memrobale Days Click Here to Check out my Antique Items Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 800 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I always combined postage on multiple items so why not take a look at my other items All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted. All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Also if bidding from overseas and you want your item tracked please select the International Signed for Postage Option For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present or Christmas Gift for someone who is hard to buy for. A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! So why not add me to your favourite sellers? Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Victoria Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882 Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882 Queen of the United Kingdom Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation 28 June 1838 Predecessor William IV Successor Edward VII Empress of India Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877 Predecessor Position established Successor Edward VII Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial 4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (m. 1840; died 1861) Issue Victoria, Princess Royal Edward VII Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Princess Helena of the United Kingdom Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom House Hanover Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Religion Protestant[a] Signature Cursive signature of Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days was longer than that of any previous British monarch and is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Victoria's father, Prince Edward Victoria as a child with her mother, after William Beechey Victoria, aged four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niece Princess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter of George, Prince Regent (who would become George IV). Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[b] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother, the Prince Regent.[2] At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821.[4] Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887 Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[c] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Victoria wears her crown and holds a sceptre. Coronation portrait by George Hayter At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68] Years with Albert Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, Victoria, Princess Royal, c. 1845[74] In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Victoria's British prime ministers Year Prime Minister (party) 1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative) 1846 Lord John Russell (W) 1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C) 1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 1858 Earl of Derby (C) 1859 Viscount Palmerston (L) 1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L) 1866 Earl of Derby (C) 1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L) 1874 Benj. Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C) 1880 William Gladstone (L) 1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L) 1886 (July) Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1892 William Gladstone (L) 1894 Earl of Rosebery (L) 1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and overseas premiers Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years.[102] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[103] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[104] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[105] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[106] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[107] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[108] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[109] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Photograph by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[110] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[111] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[112] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[113] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[114] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[115] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[116] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[117] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[118] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[119] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[120] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[121] Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[122] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[123] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[124] Victoria on a horse Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[125] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[126] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[127] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[128] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[129] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[130] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[131] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[132] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[133] In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[134] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[135] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[136] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[137] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[138] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[139] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[140] On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[141] and a birching.[142] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[143] Empress Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[144] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[145] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[146] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[146] Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[147] In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[148] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[149] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[150] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[151] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[152] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[153] Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[154] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[155] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[156] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[157] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[158] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[159] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[160] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[161] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[162] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[163] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[164] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[165] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[166] The manuscript was destroyed.[167] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[168] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[169] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[170] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[171] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[172] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[173] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[174] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[175] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[176] Two days later on 23 June,[177] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[178][179][180] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[181] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[182] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[183] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[184] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[185] Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[186] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[187] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[188] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria's official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[189] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[190] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[191] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[192] The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[193] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[194] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[195] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[196] Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[197] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[198] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[199] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[200] Her eldest son, Albert Edward, succeeded her as Edward VII. Edward and his nephew Wilhelm II were at Victoria's deathbed.[201] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[202] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[203] On 25 January, her sons Edward and Arthur and her grandson Wilhelm helped lift her body into the coffin.[204] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[205] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][206] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[207] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[208] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][209] and she denied doing so.[210] Her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[211] According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[212] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[213] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[214] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[215] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[216] Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[217] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[218] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][219] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[220] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[221] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[222] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected a decade after her death. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[223] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[224] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[225] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[226] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Charles III of the United Kingdom; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain. The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[227] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[228] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[229] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[230] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[231] Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232] Honours British honours Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233] Founder of the Victoria Cross 5 February 1856[234] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[235] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[236] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[237] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[238] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[239] Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[240] Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[241] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[242] Foreign honours Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[243] Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[244] Portugal: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[245] Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa[244] Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[246] France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[247] Mexico/Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[248] Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of San Carlos, 1866[249] Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[250] Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[251] Persia:[252] Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873 Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873 Siam: Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[253] Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[254] Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[255] Serbia:[256][257] Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882 Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883 Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897 Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[258] Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[259] Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[260] Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[261] Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[262] Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland. Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland) Family Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria. Issue See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and of King Christian IX Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][263] Victoria, the Princess Royal 1840 Nov. 21 1901 August 5 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888); 4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece) Edward VII 1841 Nov. 9 1910 May 6 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925); 3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway) Princess Alice 1843 April 25 1878 Dec. 14 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892); 2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1844 August 6 1900 July 31 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920); 2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania) Princess Helena 1846 May 25 1923 June 9 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917); 4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters Princess Louise 1848 March 18 1939 Dec.3 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914); no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1850 May 1 1942 Jan. 16 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917); 1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 1853 April 7 1884 March 28 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922); 1 son, 1 daughter Princess Beatrice 1857 April 14 1944 Oct. 26 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896); 3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain) Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Victoria[264] Family tree Red borders indicate British monarchs Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V Notes As monarch, Victoria was Supreme Governor of the Church of England. She was also aligned with the Church of Scotland. Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh). Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581. References Citations Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35 Longford, p. 24 Worsley, p. 41. Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25 Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers. 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(1912), The Girlhood of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832 and 1840, London: John Murray Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans Brothers Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7 Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-434-34861-9 Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan Ramm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6 Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder Further reading Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4 Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0 Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7 Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876 Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3 James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630 Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8 Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777 Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2 Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0 External links Listen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes) 1:01:53 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Victoria at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Queen Victoria at the official website of the British monarchy Queen Victoria at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust Queen Victoria at BBC Teach Portraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Victoria's Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian Library Works by Queen Victoria at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Queen Victoria at Internet Archive Works by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Queen Victoria House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901 Regnal titles Preceded by William IV Queen of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by Edward VII Vacant Title last held by Bahadur Shah II as Mughal emperor Empress of India 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 vte Queen Victoria Events Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball Reign Bedchamber crisisPrime ministersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsDeath and state funeral Mausoleum Family Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, German Empress (daughter)Edward VII (son)Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)DescendantsRoyal descendants Early life Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy Honours PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant) Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020) Television Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019) Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972) Statues and memorials List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch Poetry "The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897) Songs VictoriaChoral Songs Stamps British Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue Colonial Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps Related Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond CrownVictoriana ← William IVEdward VII → vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Æthelstan (from 927)Edmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnLouisHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VICharles IThe Protectorate Oliver CromwellRichard CromwellCharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhineHelena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllBeatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover 7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenLady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthloneMarie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover 8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodAlexandra, Princess Arthur of Connaught and Duchess of FifeMaud Carnegie, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor 12th generation Princess Charlotte of WalesPrincess Lilibet of Sussex Princesses whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics. vte Hanoverian princesses by birth Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III. 1st generation Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia 2nd generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 3rd generation Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie 4th generation Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 5th generation Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes 7th generation Princess Alexandra Authority control Edit this at Wikidata International FASTISNIVIAFWorldCat National NorwayChileSpainFranceBnF dataCataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelFinlandBelgiumUnited StatesSwedenLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaGreeceKoreaCroatiaNetherlandsPolandVatican Academics CiNii Artists MusicBrainz 2VictoriaRKD ArtistsTe Papa (New Zealand)ULAN People Deutsche BiographieTrove Other NARARISMSNAC 2IdRef Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of AustraliaQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsBritish royal memoiristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo Like the sixpence, the threepenny piece first appeared as a silver coin in 1551. But in competition with the half-groat or twopenny piece, which had already been in circulation for 200 years, it led a precarious existence and was unable to establish itself firmly. Struck during the reign of Elizabeth I and then again during the Civil War, minting was resumed following the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660. By the early part of the 18th century the coin only really survived as a part of the small annual issues of Maundy Money. Its role changed in 1845, when it began to be issued in large numbers for general circulation. This further attempt to popularise the coin proved successful, no doubt in part because of the large and inconvenient size of the copper coinage. During the 20th century changing habits and customs again rendered the threepenny piece unpopular, and to meet criticism of its small size a 12-sided nickel-brass piece of the same denomination but weighing almost five times as much as its silver counterpart was introduced in 1937. Its dumpiness and unusual shape aroused mixed feelings but in 1941 it had almost completely superseded its silver rival and was even being acclaimed by bus conductors and others as the easiest coin to recognise during the blackouts of the Second World War. Twelve-sided threepenny pieces were demonetised at the end of the decimal transitional period in 1971. A true antique (Latin: antiquus; 'old', 'ancient') is an item perceived as having value because of its aesthetic or historical significance, and often defined as at least 100 years old (or some other limit), although the term is often used loosely to describe any object that is old.[1] An antique is usually an item that is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection, and/or other unique features. It is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human history. Vintage and collectible are used to describe items that are old, but do not meet the 100-year criterion.[2] Antiques are usually objects of the decorative arts that show some degree of craftsmanship, collectability, or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at antiques shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions, and other venues, or estate inherited. Antiques dealers often belong to national trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA, a confederation of art and antique associations across 21 countries that represents 5,000 dealers. Definition The common definition of antique is a collectible object such as a piece of furniture or work of art that has an enhanced value because of its considerable age, but it varies depending on the item, its source, the year of its creation etc. The customary definition of antique requires that an item should be at least 100 years old and in original condition[citation needed]. (Motor vehicles are an exception to this rule, with some definitions requiring an automobile to be as little as 25 years old to qualify as an antique.[3]) In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as, "...works of art (except rugs and carpets made after the year 1700), collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, works in bronze, marble, terra cotta, parian, pottery, or porcelain, artistic antiquities and objects of ornamental character or educational value which shall have been produced prior to the year 1830."[citation needed] 1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects. In 1979, the British art critic Edward Lucie-Smith wrote that "Antique-dealers ... sometimes insist that nothing is antique which was made after 1830, although the barrier has been broken down in recent years by the enthusiasm of collectors for Art Nouveau and Art Deco.[4] The alternative term, antiquities, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past. China Traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a 'chop', placed there by an owner.[citation needed] Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops. The pre-revolution Chinese government[clarification needed] tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique. The government of the People's Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique.[clarification needed] As of the Cultural Revolution and China's opening trade to other countries, the government has tried to protect the definition of a Chinese antique.[clarification needed] Antiquing A vintage travel gear seller at Marché Dauphine, Saint-Ouen, Paris "Antiquing" redirects here. For the decorative arts technique, see Distressing. Antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for personal use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, and international auction houses. Note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or using the antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques. Would-be antique collectors who are unaware of the differences may find themselves paying a high amount of money for something that would have little value if re-sold. Furniture Furniture antiques from the Chinese Liao dynasty Main article: Antique furniture Antique furniture is a popular area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use antique furniture pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that the value of these items will remain same or appreciate. This is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc. The most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood. Chinese antique furniture is often made with elm, a wood common to many regions in Asia. Each wood has a distinctive grain and color. Many modern pieces of furniture use laminate or wood veneer to achieve the same effect. There are a number of different styles of antique furniture depending on when and where it was made. Some examples of stylistic periods are: Arts & Crafts, Georgian, Regency, and Victorian. An important part of some antique furniture is its hardware fittings, the style of which varies from one period to another. For example, Victorian era hardware is different from other period hardware and is perceived to be aesthetically defined; this is the reason for its popularity.[5] See also American Pickers Antiquarian book trade in the United States Antique tool Antiques restoration Antiques Roadshow Authentication Del Mar Antique Show Dolly Johnson Antique and Art Show List of antiques experts Primitive decorating, a style of decorating using antiques Relic The San Francisco Fall Antiques Show Vintage (design) References "Definition of ANTIQUE". www.merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018. "The difference between antique, vintage, and collectible item. - Antique HQ". www.antique-hq.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018. "About: A concise history of AACA in the beginning". Antique Automobile Club of America. US. Retrieved 15 June 2014. Lucie-Smith, Edward, A Concise History of Furniture, p. 13, 1979, Thames & Hudson, World of Art series Decorative Hardware of the Victorian Era - An American Perspective, DHI Magazine, 11 September 2021 Victorian era 1837–1901 Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg Queen Victoria in 1859 by Winterhalter Monarch(s) Victoria Leader(s) The Viscount Melbourne Sir Robert Peel Lord John Russell The Earl of Derby The Earl of Aberdeen The Viscount Palmerston Benjamin Disraeli William Ewart Gladstone The Marquess of Salisbury The Earl of Rosebery ← Preceded by Georgian era Followed by → Edwardian era Part of a series on the History of the United Kingdom BRITANNIA prout divisa fuit temporibus ANGLO-SAXONUM, praesertim durante illorum HEPTARCHIA Timeline Topics flag United Kingdom portal vte Periods in English history Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 AD British Iron Age c. 800 BC Roman Britain c. 43–410 Sub-Roman Britain c. 400s – late 500s Anglo-Saxon c. 500–1066 Norman 1066–1154 Plantagenet 1154–1485 Tudor 1485–1603 Elizabethan 1558–1603 Stuart 1603–1714 Jacobean 1603–1625 Caroline 1625–1649 (Interregnum) 1649–1660 Restoration 1660–1714 Georgian era 1714–1837 Regency era 1811–1820 Victorian era 1837–1901 Edwardian era 1901–1914 First World War 1914–1918 Interwar Britain 1919–1939 Second World War 1939–1945 Postwar Britain (political) 1945–1979 Postwar Britain (social) 1945–1979 See also Political history (1979–present) Social history (1979–present) Timeline vte Part of a series on the History of Scotland Arms of Scotland SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus Eras Prehistoric (timeline) 12,000 BC–700 BC During the Roman Empire 69–384 Middle Ages Early High Late Early Modern Modern History (timeline) Rule House of Alpin (843–878; 889–1040) House of Moray (1040–1058) House of Dunkeld (1058–1286) House of Balliol (1292–1296) House of Bruce (1306–1371) House of Stuart (1371–1652) (1660–1707) Commonwealth (1652–1660) Acts of Union 1707 Topics Culture ArchitectureArtThe KiltLiteraturePhilosophy Politics DevolutionLocal governmentScottish National PartyScottish Socialist Party Sport FootballRugby unionNational football teamGolf Religion Christianity Scottish ReformationScottish Episcopal ChurchGreat DisruptionJews and JudaismIslam and Muslims By Region Edinburgh timelineGlasgow timeline flag Scotland portal vte In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of Continental Europe. There was a strong religious drive for higher moral standards led by the nonconformist churches, such as the Methodists and the evangelical wing of the established Church of England. Ideologically, the Victorian era witnessed resistance to the rationalism that defined the Georgian period, and an increasing turn towards romanticism and even mysticism in religion, social values, and arts.[1] This era saw a staggering amount of technological innovations that proved key to Britain's power and prosperity.[2][3] Doctors started moving away from tradition and mysticism towards a science-based approach; medicine advanced thanks to the adoption of the germ theory of disease and pioneering research in epidemiology.[4] Domestically, the political agenda was increasingly liberal, with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform, improved social reform, and the widening of the franchise. There were unprecedented demographic changes: the population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901,[5] and Scotland's population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901.[6] However, Ireland's population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[7] Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrated from Great Britain, mostly to the United States, as well as to imperial outposts in Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.[8] Thanks to educational reforms, the British population not only approached universal literacy towards the end of the era but also became increasingly well-educated; the market for reading materials of all kinds boomed.[9][10][11] Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by antagonism with Russia, including the Crimean War and the Great Game. A Pax Britannica of peaceful trade was maintained by the country's naval and industrial supremacy. Britain embarked on global imperial expansion, particularly in Asia and Africa, which made the British Empire the largest empire in history. National self-confidence peaked.[12][13] Britain granted political autonomy to the more advanced colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.[14] Apart from the Crimean War, Britain was not involved in any armed conflict with another major power.[14][15] The two main political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end, the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Irish Home Rule played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement in Ireland. Terminology and periodisation See also: Periodisation In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII. Her reign lasted for 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.[16] The era has also been understood in a more extensive sense as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales. Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label "Victorian", though there have also been defences of it.[17] Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".[18] He distinguished early Victorianism – the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850[19] – and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism,[20] from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterized by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery, and complacency[21] – what G. M. Trevelyan similarly called the "mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity".[22] Political and diplomatic history Main articles: Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Domestically, Britain liberalised and gradually evolved into a democracy. The Reform Act[note 1], which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832.[23] The franchise was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867.[24] Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised.[25] From 1845 to 1852, the Great Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.[26] The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this.[27] Across the British Empire reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions, the end of transportation of convicts to Australia, loosening restrictions on colonial trade, and introducing responsible (i.e semi-autonomous) government.[15][14] The defence of Rorke's Drift during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 The period from 1815 to 1914 is known as the Pax Britannia. A period of relatively peaceful relations between the world's Great Powers. This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others.[15] The only case of the empire participating in a war against another major power is the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856.[28][15] Their were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British empire.[15][14] Britain participated in wars against minor powers.[29][15][30][14][15] It also took part in the diplomatic struggles of the Great Game[29] and the Scramble for Africa.[15][14] In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. The couple had nine children who themselves married into various royal families and the queen thus became known as the "grandmother of Europe".[31][25] In 1861, Prince Albert died.[29] Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.[25] In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, the Queen began to return to public life.[31] In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire.[31] Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901.[31] Society and culture Main article: Society and culture of the Victorian era Recreation of a Victorian Parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire The era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as the dominant class in British society.[32][33] A distinctive middle class lifestyle developed which reflected on what was valued by society as a whole.[32][34] Increased importance was placed on the value of the family and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity.[35][36] A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace which had often not been the case before.[34] The home was seen as a private environment,[34] where housewives provided their husbands with a rest-bite from the troubles of the outside world.[35] Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and rely on men as breadwinners.[37][38] Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life and a feminist movement developed.[38][39] Whilst parental authority was seen as important children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time.[40] Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870) The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour which included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self criticism.[33][41] As well as personal improvement, importance was given to social reform.[42] Utilitarianism was another philosophy which saw itself as based on science rather than morality, but also placed emphasis on social progress.[43][44] An alliance formed between these two ideological strands.[45] The causes the reformers emphasised included improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality and political reform in order to establish a democracy.[46] The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (a part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party.[47] This continued up until the First World War.[48] The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland.[49] Religion was politically controversial during this era with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of the Church of England.[50] Nonconformists, who comprised about half of church attendees in 1851,[51] gradually had the legal discrimination which had been established against them outside of Scotland removed.[52][53][54][55] Legal restrictions on Catholics were also largely removed. The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland.[50] Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education during this time period.[56] Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal[57]) gained appeal among academics in the south.[58] Historians refer to a "Victorian Crisis of Faith" as a period where religious views had to readjust to suit new scientific knowledge and criticism of the bible.[59] Leisure hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly nearing universal levels by the end of the century.[60][61] Private education for wealthier children, both boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century.[60] A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period.[11][62][63][16][64][11][65][66] Other popular forms of entertainment included brass bands,[67] circuses,[68] "spectacles" (alleged paranormal activities),[69] amateur nature collecting,[70][71] gentlemen's clubs for wealthier men,[72] and seaside holidays for the middle class.[73] Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era.[74] They became important to male identity.[75] Popular sports of the period included cricket,[76] cycling, croquet, horse-riding, and many water activities.[77] Opportunities for leisure increased as restrictions were placed on maximum working hours, wages increased and routine annual leave became increasingly common.[78][79] Economy, industry, and trade Further information: Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era; Industrial revolution; and Second industrial revolution Crew stood with a railway engine (1873) Prior to the industrial revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with a wide range of new inventions being developed.[2] This technological advancement led to Great Britain becoming the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time.[3] Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's "Golden Years",[80][81] with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery along with exports to the empire and elsewhere.[82] The positive economic conditions, as well as a fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers led to relative social stability.[82][83] Government involvement in the economy was limited.[83] It wasn't until the post-World War II period around a century later that the country experienced substantial economic growth again.[81] However, whilst industry was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre.[83] Historian Llewellyn Woodward concluded that whilst the quality of life was improving by the "golden years" conditions and housing for the working classes "were still a disgrace to an age of plenty."[84] Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century; real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 percent higher in 1901, compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831, to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.[85] Slum area in Glasgow (1871) 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution.[85] The rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London.[86][87] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.[88] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one which devastated Ireland in the 1840s.[89][90][91] Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation that:[92] Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room This illustration of a child drawer (a type of hurrier) pulling a coal tub was originally published in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report. The early Victorian era before the reforms of the 1840s became notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps.[93][94] The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low wages.[92] Reformers wanted the children in school: in 1840 only about 20 percent of the children in London had any schooling.[95] By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school).[60] From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education though these were often difficult to enforce in practise.[96] It was only in the 1870s and 1880s that children began to be compelled into school.[60] Knowledge and public health Main articles: Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era and Demographics of the Victorian era Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution (c.1855) The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy but it look a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal society began to solely admit professionals from 1847 onwards. Biologist Thomas Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living through being a scientist alone.[58] The Victorians respected science seeing it as something which could improve society and being a scientist was a prestigious occupation.[97][98][58] Significant advancements took place in various fields of research including statistics,[99] elasticity,[100] refrigeration,[101] natural history,[102] electricity[103] and logic.[104] Britain was advanced in engineering and technology.[105][106] The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system. This system which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.[107] Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.[108] The railways were important economically in the Victorian era allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around stimulating trade and industry.[109] Britain's engineers were contracted around the world to build railways.[105][106] Financing railways around the world became a speciality of London's financiers. They maintained an ownership share in these railways which were ultimately largely liquidated in the early part of the First World War to contribute to the war effort.[110][111] Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (circa 1850s or 60s) Improvements were made over time to housing along with the management of sewage and water.[112][113] A gas network for lighting and heating was introduced in the 1880s.[114] Medicine advanced rapidly during the 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time.[115] Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew.[4] In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.[116] Britain experienced rapid population growth during the Victorian era.[117] The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century.[118][119] Various factors are considered contributary to this including rising fertility rate,[120] falling infant mortality,[121] the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during the 19th century for the first time in history,[122] improved nutrition,[123] and a lower overall mortality rate.[124] The population of Ireland shrank significantly mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[125] Moral standards See also: Victorian morality and Women in the Victorian era If we lift our skirts they level their eye-glasses at our ankles (1854), cartoon suggesting that men saw women lifting their dresses as a titillating opportunity to see some of their body shape. Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century with good manners and self restraint becoming much more common.[126] Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as the major conflicts with France Britain participated in during the early 19th century meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on the war effort and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement.[127] Their is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society.[128][129] For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples co-habited before marriage.[130] Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals.[131][132][133] Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers on the 1830s and 1840s.[134][135] Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection.[136] Contrary to popular conception, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation.[137] The development of police forces led to a rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century.[138] Male sexuality became a favorite subject of study by medical researchers.[139] All male homosexual acts were made illegal for the first time.[140] At a time when there were relatively few job options for women, some particularly poorer women without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves.[141] Estimates vary, but in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported an estimation of 8,600 prostitutes in London alone in 1857.[142] Whilst this caused a moral panic in some sections of public life , their were some dissenting voices at the time. Women suspected of prostitution were for a period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for STDs and detainment if they were found to be infected.[141] See also History portal flag United Kingdom portal Victorian era portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Victorian era. Belle Époque, in France Gilded Age, in the United States Hair museum History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom Historiography of the British Empire Historiography of the United Kingdom Horror Victorianorum International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Imperialism Pax Britannica List of Victorian era British generals Neo-Victorian Social history of England United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland covers politics and diplomacy Victorian cemeteries Victorian decorative arts Victorian fashion Victorian literature Victorian morality Victoriana Women in the Victorian era Notes A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately. 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Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. doi:10.1093/shm/1.1.1. S2CID 34704101. (subscription required) Szreter, Simon (1988). "The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c.1850–1914: A re-interpretation of the role of public health". Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. doi:10.1093/shm/1.1.1. S2CID 34704101. (subscription required) "Ireland – Population Summary". Homepage.tinet.ie. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society (1969) p. 280. Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement: 1783–1867 (1959), pp. 66–74, 286–87, 436 Rebecca Probert, "Living in Sin", BBC History Magazine (September 2012); G. Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester U.P. 2008) Ian C. Bradley, The Call to Seriousness: The Evangelical Impact on the Victorians (1976) pp. 106–109 Rebecca Probert, "Living in Sin", BBC History Magazine (September 2012); G. Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester U.P. 2008) "London Police Act 1839, Great Britain Parliament. Section XXXI, XXXIV, XXXV, XLII". Archived from the original on 24 April 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011. M. B. McMullan, "The Day the Dogs Died in London" The London Journal: A Review of Metropolitan Society Past and Present (1998) 23#1 pp 32–40 https://doi.org/10.1179/ldn.1998.23.1.32 Rothfels, Nigel (2002), Representing Animals, Indiana University Press, p. 12, ISBN 978-0-253-34154-9. Chapter: 'A Left-handed Blow: Writing the History of Animals' by Erica Fudge Georgina Battiscombe, Shaftesbury: A Biography of the Seventh Earl 1801–1885 (1988) pp. 88–91. Kelly, David; et al. (2014). Business Law. Routledge. p. 548. ISBN 9781317935124. C. J. Litzenberger; Eileen Groth Lyon (2006). The Human Tradition in Modern Britain. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 142–43. ISBN 978-0-7425-3735-4. Draznin, Yaffa Claire (2001). Victorian London's Middle-Class Housewife: What She Did All Day (#179). Contributions in Women's Studies. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-0-313-31399-8. Sean Brady, Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Britain, 1861–1913 (2005). Ivan Crozier, "Nineteenth-century British psychiatric writing about homosexuality before Havelock Ellis: The missing story." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 63#1 (2008): 65–102. F. Barry Smith, "Labouchere's amendment to the Criminal Law Amendment bill." Australian Historical Studies 17.67 (1976): 165–173. Walkowitz, Judith (1980). Prostitution and Victorian Society. Cambridge University Press. Acton, William (1857). Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects (Reprint of the Second Edition with new biographical note ed.). London: Frank Cass (published 1972). ISBN 0-7146-2414-4. Further reading General Adams, James Eli, ed. Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era (4 Vol. 2004), short essays on a wide range of topics by experts Bailey, Peter. Leisure and class in Victorian England: Rational recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (Routledge, 2014). Best, Geoffrey. Mid-Victorian Britain, 1851-1875 (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971) Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830-1902 (1970) online, survey plus primary documents Briggs, Asa. The Age of Improvement 1783–1867 (1979), Wide-ranging older survey emphasizing the reforms. online Cevasco, G. A. ed. The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of British Literature, Art, and Culture (1993) 736pp; short articles by experts Chadwick, Owen. The Victorian Church (2 vol 1966), covers all denominations online Clark, G. Kitson The making of Victorian England (1963). online Ensor, R. C. K. England, 1870–1914 (1936) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49856 online] influential scholarly survey Gregg, Pauline. A Social and Economic History of Britain: 1760–1950 (1950) online Harrison, J.F.C. Early Victorian Britain 1832–1851 (Fontana, 1979). Harrison, J.F.C. Late Victorian Britain 1875–1901 (Routledge, 2013). Heffer, Simon. High Minds: The Victorians and the Birth of Modern Britain (2014), survey to 1880. Heffer, Simon. The Age of Decadence: Britain 1880 to 1914 (2017), wide-ranging scholarly survey. Heilmann, Ann, and Mark Llewellyn, eds. Neo-Victorianism: The Victorians in the Twenty-First Century, 1999–2009 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 323 pages; looks at recent literary & cinematic, interest in the Victorian era, including magic, sexuality, theme parks, and the postcolonial Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783–1846 (New Oxford History of England. 2006); in-depth scholarly survey, 784pp. Hobsbawm, Eric (1997). The Age of Capital, 1848–1875. London: Abacus. McCord, Norman and Bill Purdue. British History, 1815–1914 (2nd ed. 2007), 612 pp online, university textbook Paul, Herbert. History of Modern England, 1904-6 (5 vols) online free Perkin, Harold. The Origins of Modern English Society: 1780–1880 (1969) online Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886 (New Oxford History of England) (2000), comprehensive scholarly history excerpt and text search Roberts, Clayton and David F. Roberts. A History of England, Volume 2: 1688 to the present (2013) university textbook; 1985 edition online Somervell, D. C. English thought in the nineteenth century (1929) online Steinbach, Susie L. Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain (2012) excerpt and text search Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England (2000) 20 excerpts from leading primary and secondary sources regarding literary, cultural, technical, political, and social themes. online free Daily life and culture Aston, Jennifer, Amanda Capern, and Briony McDonagh. "More than bricks and mortar: female property ownership as economic strategy in mid-nineteenth-century urban England." Urban History 46.4 (2019): 695–721. online Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5. Houghton, Walter E. (1957). The Victorian frame of mind, 1830–1870. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00122-8. May, Trevor (1994). The Victorian Schoolroom. Great Britain: Shire Publications. pp. 3, 29. Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4. O'Gorman, Francis, ed. The Cambridge companion to Victorian culture (2010) Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian culture and society: the essential glossary (2003). Thompson, F. M. L. Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (1988) Strong on family, marriage, childhood, houses, and play. Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016). Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7 Young, Gerard Mackworth, ed. Early Victorian England 1830-1865 (2 vol 1934) scholarly surveys of cultural history. vol 2 online Literature Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. (1974) online free Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature (2015). Flint, Kay. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014). Horsman, Alan. The Victorian Novel (Oxford History of English Literature, 1991) Politics Aydelotte, William O. “Parties and Issues in Early Victorian England.” Journal of British Studies, 5#2 1966, pp. 95–114. online Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970), contains a short narrative history and 147 "Selected documents" on pp 195–504. Boyd, Kelly and Rohan McWilliam, eds. The Victorian Studies Reader (2007) 467pp; articles and excerpts by scholars excerpts and text search Bright, J. Franck. A History of England. Period 4: Growth of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880 (1902) online 608pp; highly detailed older political narrative A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction, Victoria, 1880‒1901 (1904) online Brock, M. G. "Politics at the Accession of Queen Victoria" History Today (1953) 3#5 pp 329–338 online. Brown, David, Robert Crowcroft, and Gordon Pentland, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Modern British Political History, 1800–2000 (2018) excerpt Burton, Antoinette, ed. Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6 Marriott, J. A. R. England Since Waterloo (1913); focus on politics and diplomacy; online Martin, Howard.Britain in the 19th Century (Challenging History series, 2000) 409pp; textbook; emphasizing politics, diplomacy and use of primary sources Trevelyan, G. M. British History in the Nineteenth Century and After (1782–1901) (1922). online very well written scholarly survey Walpole, Spencer. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (6 vol. 1878–86), very well written political narrative to 1855; online Walpole, Spencer. History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904–1908) covers 1856–1880; online Woodward, E. L. The Age of Reform: 1815–1870 (1954) comprehensive survey online Young, G. M. "Mid-Victorianism" History Today (1951) 1#1 pp 11–17, online. Crime and punishment Auerbach, Sascha (2015). "'Beyond the pale of mercy': Victorian penal culture, police court missionaries, and the origins of probation in England" (PDF). Law and History Review. 33 (3): 621–663. doi:10.1017/S0738248015000280. S2CID 142101025. Bailey, Victor. Policing and punishment in nineteenth century Britain (2015). Churchill, David. Crime Control and Everyday Life in the Victorian City (Oxford UP, 2018) Emsley, Clive. Crime and society in England: 1750–1900 (2013). Emsley, Clive. "Crime in 19th Century Britain." History Today 38 (1988): 40+ Emsley, Clive. The English Police: A Political and Social History (2nd ed. 1996) also published as The Great British Bobby: A History of British Policing from the 18th Century to the Present (2010)excerpt Fox, Lionel W. (1998). The English Prison and Borstal Systems. p. 46. ISBN 9780415177382. Gatrell, V. A. C. "Crime, authority and the policeman-state." in E.M.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge social history of Britain 1750-1950: Volume 3 (1990). 3:243-310 Hay, Douglas. "Crime and justice in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century England." Crime and Justice 2 (1980): 45–84. online Kilday, Anne-Marie. "Women and crime." Women's History, Britain 1700–1850 ed. Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, (Routledge, 2004) pp. 186–205. May, Margaret. "Innocence and experience: the evolution of the concept of juvenile delinquency in the mid-nineteenth century." Victorian Studies 17.1 (1973): 7–29. online Radzinowicz, Leon. A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 (5 vol. 1948–1976) Radzinowicz, Leon and Roger Hood The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian England (1990) Shore, Heather (2000). "The Idea of Juvenile Crime in 19th Century England". History Today. 50 (6): 21–27. Shore, Heather. "Crime, policing and punishment." in Chris Williams, ed., A companion to nineteenth-century Britain (2007): 381–395. excerpt Storch, R. D. (1980). "Crime And Justice in 19th-Century England". History Today. 30: 32–37. Taylor, James (2018). "White-collar crime and the law in nineteenth-century Britain" (PDF). Business History. 60 (3): 343–360. doi:10.1080/00076791.2017.1339691. S2CID 157785396. Tobias, J. J. Crime and Industrial Society in the Nineteenth Century (1967) . Tobias, J.J. ed, Nineteenth-century crime: prevention and punishment (1972) primary sources. Taylor, Howard. "Rationing crime: the political economy of criminal statistics since the 1850s." Economic history review (1998) 51#3 569–590. online Historiography Burton, Antoinette (2012). "Victorian History: Some Experiments with Syllabi". Victorian Studies. 54 (2): 305–311. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.54.2.305. S2CID 142936859. Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online Gooch, Brison D. (1973). "Recent Literature on Queen Victoria's Little Wars". Victorian Studies. 17 (2): 217–224. JSTOR 3826186. Goodlad, Lauren M. E. (2000). "'A Middle Class Cut into Two': Historiography and Victorian National Character". ELH. 67 (1): 143–178. doi:10.1353/elh.2000.0003. S2CID 161748511. Homans, Margaret, and Adrienne Munich, eds. Remaking Queen Victoria (Cambridge University Press, 1997) Kent, Christopher (1996). "Victorian social history: post-Thompson, post-Foucault, postmodern". Victorian Studies. 1996 (1): 97–133. JSTOR 3828799. Mays, Kelly J (2011). "Looking backward, looking forward: the Victorians in the rear-view mirror of future history". Victorian Studies. 53 (3): 445–456. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.53.3.445. S2CID 143253052. Moore, D. C. "In Search of a New Past: 1820 – 1870," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 255–298 Parry, J. P. (1983). "The State of Victorian Political History". Historical Journal. 26 (2): 469–484. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00024201. JSTOR 2638778. S2CID 162264240. Sandiford, Keith A. P. (1981). "The Victorians at play: Problems in historiographical methodology". Journal of Social History. 1981 (2): 271–288. doi:10.1353/jsh/15.2.271. JSTOR 3787112. Stansky, Peter. "British History: 1870 – 1914," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 299–326 Taylor, Miles (2020). "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria". Journal of British Studies. 59 (1): 121–135. doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245. S2CID 213433777. Vernon, James (2005). "Historians and the Victorian Studies Question". Victorian Studies. 47 (2): 272–79. doi:10.2979/VIC.2005.47.2.272. S2CID 145307328. Webb, R. K. Modern England: from the 18th century to the present (1968) online widely recommended university textbook Primary sources Black, E.C. ed. British politics in the nineteenth century (1969) online Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970.) pp 195–504 are 147 selected documents Hicks, Geoff, et al. eds. Documents on Conservative Foreign Policy, 1852–1878 (2013), 550 documents excerpt Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938), 608pp of primary sources online External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Victorian era. Free online books on the Victorian era Victorians British Library website exploring the Victorian period. Victorians.co.uk Victorian Era History Guide. Mostly-Victorian.com A collection of primary-source documents drawn from Victorian periodicals. The Victorian Dictionary The Victorian Web Victorians British Library history resources about the Victorian era, featuring collection material and text by Liza Picard. 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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "19th century" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 18th century19th century20th century Timelines 18th century19th century20th century State leaders 18th century19th century20th century Decades 1800s1810s1820s1830s1840s 1850s1860s1870s1880s1890s Categories: Births – Deaths Establishments – Disestablishments vte Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the First French Empire. The 19th (nineteenth) century began on 1 January 1801 (MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM). The 19th century was the ninth century of the 2nd millennium. The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. Slavery was abolished in much of Europe and the Americas. The First Industrial Revolution, though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the Low Countries, the Rhineland, Northern Italy, and the Northeastern United States. A few decades later, the Second Industrial Revolution led to ever more massive urbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the 20th century. The Islamic gunpowder empires fell into decline and European imperialism brought much of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and almost all of Africa under colonial rule. It was also marked by the collapse of the large Spanish and Mughal Empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British, French, German, Russian, Italian, and Japanese Empires along with the United States. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars, the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to Central Asia and the Caucasus. The Ottoman Empire underwent a period of Westernization and reform known as the Tanzimat, vastly increasing its control over core territories in the Middle East. However, it remained in decline and became known as the sick man of Europe, losing territory in the Balkans and North Africa. The remaining powers in the Indian subcontinent such as the Maratha and Sikh Empires have suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the British East India Company's rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the British Crown through the establishment of the British Raj. Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization on a massive scale. Overview Queen Victoria of Great Britain. The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,[1] and the first functional light bulb in 1878.[2] The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.[3] The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.[4] The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles.[5] Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the Western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.[6] The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe.[7] Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade.[8] The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's Thirteenth Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861. The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.[9] The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball, and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous. The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815. It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War. Eras Map of the world from 1897. The British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century. Industrial revolution European imperialism British Regency, Victorian era (UK, British Empire) Bourbon Restoration, July Monarchy, French Second Republic, Second French Empire, French Third Republic (France) Belle Époque (Europe) Edo period, Meiji period (Japan) Qing dynasty (China) Nguyen dynasty (Vietnam) Joseon dynasty (Korea) Zulu Kingdom (South Africa) Tanzimat, First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire) Russian Empire American Manifest Destiny, Antebellum Era, The Gilded Age, Wild West, Reconstruction (United States) Wars Napoleonic Wars Main article: Napoleonic Wars See also: Timeline of the Napoleonic era Napoleon's retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French. In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact. Latin American independence Main articles: Latin American wars of independence and Spanish American wars of independence Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence The Chilean Declaration of Independence on 18 February 1818 Mexico and the majority of the countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal. The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.[10] In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place. Revolutions of 1848 Main article: Revolutions of 1848 Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the European revolutions of 1848 The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in January in Sicily.[clarification needed] Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.[11] Abolition and the American Civil War Main articles: Abolitionism and American Civil War William Wilberforce (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888. Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary[12] on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."[13] He did so.[14] The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,[15] ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth. Decline of the Ottoman Empire Main article: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Bosnian Uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigated the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania. Bulgaria became autonomous. China: Taiping Rebellion Main article: Taiping Rebellion A scene of the Taiping Rebellion. The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.[16] Japan: Meiji Restoration Main article: Meiji Restoration During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.[17] Colonialism Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algiers, French Algeria in 1857 Main articles: Western imperialism in Asia and Scramble for Africa The Maratha Confederacy and the East India Company sign the Treaty of Bassein in 1802. 1803: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its Manifest Destiny, which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans. 1817 – 1819: British Empire annexed the Maratha Confederacy after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. 1823 – 1887: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called Myanmar) after three Anglo-Burmese Wars. 1848 – 1849: Sikh Empire is defeated in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Therefore, the entire Indian subcontinent is under British control. 1862: France gained its first foothold in Southeast Asia and in 1863 annexed Cambodia. 1867: United States purchased Alaska from Russia. Africa Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913 In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations.[18] Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal, but Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.[18] In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes.[18] Other wars 1801–1815: First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa. 1802: Tay Son army recaptured Phu Xuan, causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, Nguyen Phuc Anh successfully captured Thang Long, founded the Nguyen dynasty 1804–1810: Fulani Jihad in Nigeria. 1804–1813: Russo-Persian War. 1806–1812: Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Bucharest. 1807–1837: Musket Wars among Māori in many parts of New Zealand. 1808–1809: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the Finnish War. 1816: Shaka rises to power over the Zulu Kingdom. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the Mfecane ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa 1810: Grito de Dolores begins the Mexican War of Independence. 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe: U.S outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community 1812–1815: War of 1812 between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power. 1813–1837: Afghan–Sikh Wars. 1814–1816: Anglo-Nepalese War between Nepal (Gurkha Empire) and British Empire. 1817: First Seminole War begins in Florida. 1817: Russia commences its conquest of the Caucasus. 1820: Revolutions of 1820 in Southern Europe 1821–1830: Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. 1825–1830: Java War begins. 1826–1828: After the final Russo-Persian War, the Persian Empire took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war. 1828–1832: Black War in Tasmania leads to the near extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines 1830: July Revolution overthrew old line of Bourbons. 1830: November Uprising in Poland against Russia. 1830: Belgian Revolution results in Belgium's independence from Netherlands. 1830: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies. 1831: France invades and occupies Algeria. 1831–1833: Egyptian–Ottoman War. 1832–1875: Regimental rebellions of Brazil 1835–1836: Texas Revolution results in Texas's independence from Mexico. 1839–1842: First Opium War begins. 1846–1848: Mexican–American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day Southwestern United States. 1848: February Revolution overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president. 1853–1856: Crimean War between France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire and Russia. 1857: Indian Rebellion against the Company Raj. After this the power of the East India Company is transferred to the British Crown. 1859: Franco-Austrian War is part of the wars of Italian unification. 1861–1865: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy. Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the American Civil War.[19] 1861–1867: French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the Second Mexican Empire, ruled by Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Carlota of Mexico. 1863–1865: January Uprising against the Russian Empire. 1864–1870: Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population. 1866: Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy. 1868-1869: Boshin War results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire. 1868–1878: Ten Years' War between Cuba and Spain. 1870–1871: Franco-Prussian War results in the unifications of Germany and Italy, the collapse of the Second French Empire and the emergence of a New Imperialism. 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed. 1876: The April Uprising in Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire. 1879: Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the Zulu Kingdom. 1879–1880: Little War against Spanish rule in Cuba leads to rebel defeat. 1879–1883: Chile battles with Peru and Bolivia over Andean territory in the War of the Pacific. 1880–1881: First Boer War begins. 1881–1899: Mahdist War in Sudan. A depiction of the Battle of Omdurman in 1898; in the battle, Winston Churchill took part in a cavalry charge. 1882: Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of Egypt 1883–1898: Mandingo Wars between the French colonial empire and the Wassoulou Empire of the Mandingo people led by Samory Touré. 1894–1895: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea. 1895: Taiwan is ceded to the Empire of Japan as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War. 1895–1896: Ethiopia defeats Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. 1895–1898: Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from Spain. 1896-1898: Philippine Revolution results in a Filipino victory. 1898: Spanish–American War results in the independence of Cuba. 1899–1901: Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by the Eight-Nation Alliance. 1899–1902: Thousand Days' War in Colombia breaks out between the "Liberales" and "Conservadores", culminating with the loss of Panama in 1903. 1899–1902: Second Boer War begins. 1899–1902: Philippine–American War begins. Science and technology Main article: 19th century in science Distinguished Men of Science.[20] Use your cursor to see who is who.[21] The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell,[22] which soon replaced the older term of natural philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s. Michael Faraday (1791–1867) Charles Darwin 1807: Potassium and Sodium are individually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy. 1831–1836: Charles Darwin's journey on HMS Beagle. 1859: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species. 1861: James Clerk Maxwell publishes On Physical Lines of Force, formulating the four Maxwell's equations. 1865: Gregor Mendel formulates his laws of inheritance. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev creates the Periodic table. 1873: Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism published. 1877: Asaph Hall discovers the moons of Mars 1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity; J. J. Thomson identifies the electron, though not by name. Medicine Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.[23] 1804: Morphine first isolated. 1842: Anesthesia used for the first time. 1847: Chloroform invented for the first time, given to Queen Victoria at the birth of her eighth child, Prince Leopold in 1853 1855: Cocaine is isolated by Friedrich Gaedcke. 1885: Louis Pasteur creates the first successful vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. 1889: Aspirin patented. Inventions Thomas Edison was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. First motor bus in history: the Benz Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company 1804: First steam locomotive begins operation. 1816: Laufmaschine invented by Karl von Drais. 1825: Erie Canal opened connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. 1825: First isolation of aluminium. 1825: The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world, is opened. 1826: Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine. 1829: First electric motor built. 1837: Telegraphy patented. 1841: The word "dinosaur" is coined by Richard Owen. 1844: First publicly funded telegraph line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23) 1849: The safety pin and the gas mask are invented. 1852: The first successful blimp is invented 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass-produced. 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania 1858: Invention of the phonautograph, the first true device for recording sound. 1859: The first ironclad was launched into sea by the French Navy. 1860: Benjamin Tyler Henry invents the 16 - shot Henry Rifle 1861: Richard Gatling invents the Gatling Gun, first modern machine gun used notably in the battles of Cold Harbor and Petersburg 1862: First meeting in combat of ironclad warships, USS Monitor and CSS Virginia, during the American Civil War. 1863: First section of the London Underground opens. 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858. 1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite. 1868: Safety bicycle invented. 1869: First transcontinental railroad completed in United States on 10 May. 1870: Rasmus Malling-Hansen's invention the Hansen Writing Ball becomes the first commercially sold typewriter. 1873: Blue jeans and barbed wire are invented. 1877: Thomas Edison invents the phonograph 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. c. 1875/1880: Introduction of the widespread use of electric lighting. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor arc lighting systems by 1880.[24] 1879: Thomas Edison patents a practical incandescent light bulb. 1882: Introduction of large scale electric power utilities with the Edison Holborn Viaduct (London) and Pearl Street (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.[25][26] 1884: Sir Hiram Maxim invents the first self-powered Machine gun. 1885: Singer begins production of the 'Vibrating Shuttle'. which would become the most popular model of sewing machine. 1886: Karl Benz sells the first commercial automobile. 1890: The cardboard box is invented. 1892: John Froelich develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor. 1894: Karl Elsener invents the Swiss Army knife. 1894: First gramophone record. 1895: Wilhelm Röntgen identifies x-rays. Religion 1818: The first permanent Reform Judaism congregation, the Neuer Israelitischer Tempel, is founded in Hamburg on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of Wissenschaft des Judentums, the seeds of Conservative Judaism are sown. 1830: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established. 1844: The Báb announces his revelation on 23 May, founding Bábism. He announced to the world of the coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith. 1850s–1890s: In Islam, Salafism grows in popularity. 1851: Hong Xiuquan, the leader of the God Worshipping Society, founds the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. 1857: In Paris, France, Allan Kardec, publishes The Spirits' Book and founds the Spiritism. 1868: In Japan, State Shinto is established amidst the Meiji Restoration. 1869–1870: The First Vatican Council is convened, articulating the dogma of papal infallibility and promoting a revival of scholastic theology. 1871–1878: In Germany, Otto von Bismarck challenges the Catholic Church in the Kulturkampf ("Culture War") 1875: Helena Blavatsky co-founds the Theosophical Society and becomes the leading articulator of Theosophy. 1879: Mary Baker Eddy founds the Church of Christ, Scientist. The Watchtower, published by the Jehovah's Witnesses, releases its first issue. 1881: In the Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad claims to be the Mahdi, founding the Mahdist State and declaring war on the Khedivate of Egypt. 1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. 1891: Pope Leo XIII issues the papal encyclical Rerum novarum, the first major document informing modern Catholic social teaching. Culture The Great Exhibition in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise. 1808: Beethoven composes Fifth Symphony 1813: Jane Austen publishes Pride and Prejudice 1818: Mary Shelley publishes Frankenstein. 1819: John Keats writes his six of his best-known odes. 1819: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece The Raft of the Medusa, and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the Louvre. 1824: Premiere of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. 1829: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust premieres. 1833–1834: Thomas Carlyle publishes Sartor Resartus. 1837: Charles Dickens publishes Oliver Twist. 1841: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes Self-Reliance. 1845: Frederick Douglass publishes Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. 1847: The Brontë sisters publish Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey. 1848: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto. 1849: Josiah Henson publishes The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. 1851: Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick. 1851: Sojourner Truth delivers the speech Ain't I a Woman?. 1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin. 1855: Walt Whitman publishes the first edition of Leaves of Grass. 1855: Frederick Douglass publishes the first edition of My Bondage and My Freedom. 1862: Victor Hugo publishes Les Misérables. 1863: Jules Verne begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, Voyages extraordinaires, with the novel Cinq semaines en ballon. 1865: Lewis Carroll publishes Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. 1869: Leo Tolstoy publishes War and Peace. 1875: Georges Bizet's opera Carmen premiers in Paris. 1876: Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle is first performed in its entirety. 1883: Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island is published. 1884: Mark Twain publishes the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. 1886: "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published. 1887: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet. 1889: Vincent van Gogh paints The Starry Night. 1889: Moulin Rouge opens in Paris. 1892: Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite premières in St Petersberg. 1894: Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book is published 1895: Trial of Oscar Wilde and premiere of his play The Importance of Being Earnest. 1897: Bram Stoker writes Dracula. 1900: L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina Literature Main articles: Romantic poetry and 19th century in literature On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.[27] The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott, Thomas Carlyle and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes); the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire.[28] Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few. Photography One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by Nicéphore Niépce Nadar, Self-portrait, c. 1860 See also: History of photography, List of photojournalists, Photojournalism, and Daguerreotype Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer Mathew Brady, documented the American Civil War Edward S. Curtis, documented the American West notably Native Americans Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer George Eastman, inventor of roll film Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography Auguste and Louis Lumière, pioneer film-makers, inventors Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer Nadar a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, chemist and photographer William Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative / positive photographic process. Visual artists, painters, sculptors Main articles: History of art § Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970), Western painting, and Ukiyo-e Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814, Museo del Prado Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830, Louvre Vincent van Gogh, Self-portrait, 1889, National Gallery of Art Alphonse Mucha, Advertise with Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile, 1897 The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included: Ivan Aivazovsky Léon Bakst Albert Bierstadt William Blake Arnold Böcklin Rosa Bonheur William Burges Mary Cassatt Camille Claudel Paul Cézanne Frederic Edwin Church Thomas Cole Jan Matejko John Constable Camille Corot Gustave Courbet Honoré Daumier Edgar Degas Eugène Delacroix Thomas Eakins Caspar David Friedrich Paul Gauguin Théodore Géricault Vincent van Gogh William Morris Francisco Goya Andō Hiroshige Hokusai Winslow Homer Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres Isaac Levitan Édouard Manet Claude Monet Gustave Moreau Berthe Morisot Edvard Munch Mikhail Nesterov Camille Pissarro Augustus Pugin Pierre-Auguste Renoir Ilya Repin Auguste Rodin Albert Pinkham Ryder John Singer Sargent Valentin Serov Georges Seurat Ivan Shishkin Vasily Surikov James Tissot Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Joseph Mallord William Turner Viktor Vasnetsov Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Mikhail Vrubel James Abbott McNeill Whistler Tsukioka Yoshitoshi Music Main articles: List of Romantic-era composers, Romantic music, and Romanticism Ludwig van Beethoven Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes: Mily Balakirev Ludwig van Beethoven Hector Berlioz Georges Bizet Alexander Borodin Johannes Brahms Anton Bruckner Frédéric Chopin Claude Debussy Antonín Dvořák Mikhail Glinka Edvard Grieg Scott Joplin Alexandre Levy Franz Liszt Gustav Mahler Felix Mendelssohn Modest Mussorgsky Jacques Offenbach Niccolò Paganini Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov Gioachino Rossini Anton Rubinstein Camille Saint-Saëns Antonio Salieri Franz Schubert Robert Schumann Alexander Scriabin Arthur Sullivan Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Giuseppe Verdi Richard Wagner Sports 1867: The Marquess of Queensberry Rules for boxing are published. 1872: The first recognised international football match, between England and Scotland, is played. 1877: The first test cricket match, between England and Australia, is played. 1891: Basketball is invented by James Naismith. 1895: Volleyball is invented. 1896: Olympic Games revived in Athens. Events Main article: Timeline of the 19th century 1801–1850 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom. 1802: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State sack Karbala. 1803: William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat". 1803: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina. 1804: Austrian Empire founded by Francis I. 1804: World population reaches 1 billion. 1805: The Battle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the British Empire later in the century. 1805–1848: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt. 1819: 29 January, Stamford Raffles arrives in Singapore with William Farquhar to establish a trading post for the British East India Company. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement. 1810: The University of Berlin was founded. Among its students and faculty are Hegel, Marx, and Bismarck. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see History of European research universities). 1814: Elisha Collier invents the Flintlock Revolver. 1814 : February 1 Eruption of Mayon Volcano 1815: April, Mount Tambora in Sumbawa island erupts, becoming the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history, destroying Tambora culture, and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created global climate anomalies known as "volcanic winter".[29] 1816: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora. 1816–1828: Shaka's Zulu Kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa. 1819: The Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia) achieves independence after Simón Bolívar's triumph at the Battle of Boyacá. 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company. 1820: Discovery of Antarctica. 1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves. 1820: Dissolution of the Maratha Empire. 1821–1823: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín I of Mexico. 1822: Pedro I of Brazil declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September. 1823: Monroe Doctrine declared by US President James Monroe. 1825: The Decembrist revolt. Decembrists at the Senate Square. 1829: Sir Robert Peel founds the Metropolitan Police Service, the first modern police force. Emigrants leaving Ireland. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone. 1830: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, the Great Game, commences and concludes in 1895. 1831: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the Battle of Warsaw. 1832: The British Parliament passes the Great Reform Act. 1834–1859: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied Caucasus. 1835–1836: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas. 1836: Samuel Colt popularizes the revolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the Colt Paterson revolver a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually. 1837–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada. 1838: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the Trail of Tears. 1839–1860: After the First and Second Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many trade and associated concessions from China resulting in the start of the decline of the Qing dynasty. 1839–1919: Anglo-Afghan Wars lead to stalemate and the establishment of the Durand line 1842: Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong to the British. 1843: The first wagon train sets out from Missouri. 1844: Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers establish what is considered the first cooperative in the world. 1845–1849: The Great Famine of Ireland leads to the Irish diaspora. 1848: The Communist Manifesto published. 1848: Seneca Falls Convention is the first women's rights convention in the United States and leads to the battle for women's suffrage. 1848–1855: California Gold Rush. 1849: Earliest recorded air raid, as Austria employs 200 balloons to deliver ordnance against Venice. 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time. 1850: Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch establishes the first cooperative financial institution. 1851–1900 1851: The Great Exhibition in London was the world's first international Expo or World Fair. 1852: Frederick Douglass delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in Rochester, New York. 1857: Sir Joseph Whitworth designs the first long-range sniper rifle. 1857–1858: Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British Empire assumes control of India from the East India Company. 1858: Construction of Big Ben is completed. 1859–1869: Suez Canal is constructed. The first vessels sail through the Suez Canal 1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi launches the Expedition of the Thousand. 1861: Russia abolishes serfdom. 1862–1877: Muslim Rebellion in north-west China. 1863: Formation of the International Red Cross is followed by the adoption of the First Geneva Convention in 1864. 1865–1877: Reconstruction in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. 1868: Michael Barrett is the last person to be publicly hanged in England. 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. A barricade in the Paris Commune, 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed. Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The Panic of 1873 and Long Depression followed. 1870: Official dismantling of the Cultivation System and beginning of a 'Liberal Policy' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.[30] 1870–1890: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America. 1871–1872: Famine in Persia is believed to have caused the death of 2 million. 1871: The Paris Commune briefly rules the French capital. 1872: Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, is created. 1874: The Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs, better known as the Impressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer Nadar. 1874: The Home Rule Movement is established in Ireland. 1875: HMS Challenger surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho 1876–1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the Gilded Age. 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labour strike. 1881: Wave of pogroms begins in the Russian Empire. 1881–1882: The Jules Ferry laws are passed in France establishing free, secular education. 1883: Krakatoa volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history. 1883: The quagga is rendered extinct. 1886: Construction of the Statue of Liberty; Coca-Cola is developed. 1888: Founding of the shipping line Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.[30] 1888: The Golden Law abolishes slavery in Brazil. 1889: Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris. Studio portrait of Ilustrados in Europe, c. 1890 1889: A republican military coup establishes the First Brazilian Republic. The parliamentary constitutional monarchy is abolished. 1889-1890: 1889–1890 pandemic kills 1 million people. 1890: First use of the electric chair as a method of execution. 1892: The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World. 1892: Fingerprinting is officially adopted for the first time. 1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to enact women's suffrage. 1893: The Coremans-de Vriendt law is passed in Belgium, creating legal equality for French and Dutch languages. 1894: The Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem[30] resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in Mataram.[31] J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures Nagarakretagama manuscript in Lombok royal library. 1896: Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule. 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. 1898: Empress Dowager Cixi of China engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the Hundred Days' Reform; the Guangxu Emperor is arrested. 1900: Exposition Universelle held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend Art Nouveau. 1900–1901: Eight nations invade China at the same time and ransack Forbidden City. For later events, see Timeline of the 20th century. Supplementary portrait gallery Carl Friedrich Gauss Carl Friedrich Gauss Charles Darwin Charles Darwin Victor Hugo c. 1876 Victor Hugo c. 1876 Dmitri Mendeleev Dmitri Mendeleev Louis Pasteur, 1878 Louis Pasteur, 1878 Marie Curie, c. 1898 Marie Curie, c. 1898 Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla José Rizal José Rizal Jane Austen Jane Austen Leo Tolstoy c. 1897 Leo Tolstoy c. 1897 Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe Jules Verne Jules Verne Charles Dickens Charles Dickens Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872 Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872 Mark Twain, 1894 Mark Twain, 1894 Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo Emerson Henry David Thoreau, August 1861. Henry David Thoreau, August 1861. Émile Zola, c. 1900 Émile Zola, c. 1900 Anton Chekhov Anton Chekhov Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876 Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876 John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882 John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882 David Livingstone 1864, left Britain for Africa in 1840 David Livingstone 1864, left Britain for Africa in 1840 Jesse and Frank James, 1872 Jesse and Frank James, 1872 Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885 Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885 Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876 Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876 Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875 Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875 Alfred, Lord Tennyson Alfred, Lord Tennyson Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Bakunin Søren Kierkegaard Søren Kierkegaard Solomon Northup Solomon Northup Dred Scott Dred Scott Madam C. J. Walker Madam C. J. Walker Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872, gave the name to Impressionism Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872, gave the name to Impressionism Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881 Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881 Scott Joplin Scott Joplin Niccolò Paganini, c.1819 Niccolò Paganini, c.1819 Frédéric Chopin, 1838 Frédéric Chopin, 1838 John D. Rockefeller John D. Rockefeller See also Timelines of modern history Long nineteenth century 19th century in film 19th century in games 19th-century philosophy Nineteenth-century theatre International relations (1814–1919) List of wars: 1800–1899 Victorian era France in the long nineteenth century History of Spain (1808–1874) History of Russia (1855–1892) Slavery in the United States Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history Timeline of historic inventions References "The First Telephone Call". www.americaslibrary.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-10-22. Retrieved 2015-10-25. "Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light". WIRED. 18 December 2009. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2017. Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions. Encyclopædia Britannica. "The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century". Americanhistory.about.com. 2012-09-18. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 2012-10-31. Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England Archived 2008-03-13 at the Wayback Machine "Modernization – Population Change". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Liberalism in the 19th century Archived 2009-02-18 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica. Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore Archived 2009-01-08 at the Wayback Machine. BBC. The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration? Archived 2010-07-04 at the Wayback Machine. Migration News. December 1996. Perez-Brignoli, Hector (1989). A Brief History of Central America. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520909762. R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp. v, 4 "The Emancipation Proclamation". National Archives. October 6, 2015. Archived from the original on February 6, 2017. Retrieved February 15, 2017. McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment," in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), The Reader's Companion to American History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [1] Retrieved from Archived 2018-11-06 at the Wayback Machine "Transcript of the Proclamation". National Archives. October 6, 2015. "13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery". National Archives. January 27, 2016. Archived from the original on February 16, 2017. Retrieved February 15, 2017. Reilly, Thomas H. (2004). The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire (1 ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295801926. W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972), Kerr, Gordon (2012). A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring. Harpenden, Herts [UK]: Pocket Essentials. pp. 85–101. ISBN 9781842434420. "Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape Archived 2017-02-28 at the Wayback Machine". John Huddleston (2002). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6773-8 Engraving after 'Men of Science Living in 1807-8', John Gilbert engraved by George Zobel and William Walker, ref. NPG 1075a, National Portrait Gallery, London, accessed February 2010 Smith, HM (May 1941). "Eminent men of science living in 1807-8". J. Chem. Educ. 18 (5): 203. doi:10.1021/ed018p203. Snyder, Laura J. (2000-12-23). "William Whewell". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2010-01-04. Retrieved 2008-03-03. "Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2018-12-31. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009. "Arc Lamps - How They Work & History". edisontechcenter.org. Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310 Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1 David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century (2nd ed. 2008) M. H. Abrams et al., eds., The Norton Anthology of English Literature (9th ed. 2012) Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534. Vickers (2005), page xii Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in Colonial collections Revisited: Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. ISBN 978-90-5789-152-6. 296 pages. pp. 186–203 Further reading Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online frr New Cambridge Modern History (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy Bury, J. P. T. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1964) online Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830 (1965) online Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas (1972) Hinsley, F.H., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898 (1979) online Diplomacy and international relations Main article: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Aldrich, Robert (1996). Greater France. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5. ISBN 978-0-333-56740-1. Bartlett, C. J. (1996). Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914. London: Macmillan Education UK. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9. ISBN 978-0-333-62001-4. Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914, 2nd Ed. (2005) Gooch, G. P. (1923). "History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919". Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs. 2 (6): 266. doi:10.2307/3014586. JSTOR 3014586. Herring, George C. Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921 (2017) Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000 (1987), stress on economic and military factors Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced history online Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced history online Mowat, R.B. A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914 (1922) online free Osterhammel, Jürgen (2014). The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century (PDF). doi:10.1515/9781400849949. ISBN 9781400849949. Porter, Andrew, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century (2001) Sontag, Raymond. European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932 (1933), basic summary; 425 pp online Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; online free Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 542–66. online Wesseling, H. L. (2015). The European Colonial Empires. doi:10.4324/9781315844503. ISBN 9781315844503. Europe Anderson, M. S. The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) Blanning, T. C. W. ed. The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914 (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 (1938) online. Cameron, Rondo. France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history. Evans, Richard J. The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914 (2016), 934 pp Gildea, Robert. Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, online 2nd ed, 1996 Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. London: Macmillan Education UK. doi:10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5. ISBN 978-0-333-68275-3. Mason, David S. A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity (2011), since 1700 Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire (5 vol. 2006) Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (2011) Salmi, Hannu. 19th Century Europe: A Cultural History (2008). Asia, Africa Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (1998) Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Bates, Robert H; Nunn, Nathan; Robinson, James A, eds. (2014). Africa's Development in Historical Perspective. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139644594. ISBN 9781139644594. Chamberlain. M.E. The Scramble for Africa (3rd ed. 2010) Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa. Davidson, Basil Africa In History, Themes and Outlines. (2nd ed. 1991). Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia. doi:10.1017/9781316340356. ISBN 9781107118737. Ludden, David. India and South Asia: A Short History (2013). McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of African History (2nd ed. 1996). excerpt Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, A History of the Middle East (4th ed, 2013). Murphey, Rhoads (2016). A History of Asia. doi:10.4324/9781315509495. ISBN 9781315509495. Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912 (1992) North and South America Bakewell, Peter, A History of Latin America (Blackwell, 1997) Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. The Oxford History of Mexico (2010) Bethell, Leslie, ed. (1984). The Cambridge History of Latin America. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521232234. ISBN 9781139055161. Black, Conrad. Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present (2014) Burns, E. Bradford, Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History, paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (2009), Pulitzer Prize Kirkland, Edward C. A History Of American Economic Life (3rd ed. 1960) online Lynch, John, ed. Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994) McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history Parry, J.H. A Short History of the West Indies (1987) Paxson, Frederic Logan. History of the American frontier, 1763–1893 (1924) online, Pulitzer Prize White, Richard. The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896 (2017) Primary sources de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period (2008), 1192 pp Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939 (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents External links Media related to 19th century at Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote has quotations related to 19th century. vte Romanticism Countries DenmarkEngland (literature)France (literature)GermanyNorwayPolandRussia (literature)ScotlandSpain (literature)Sweden (literature) Movements AncientsBohemianismCoppet groupCounter-EnlightenmentDarkDüsseldorf SchoolGerman Historical SchoolGothic revivalHudson River SchoolIndianismJenaLake PoetsNationalistNazarene movementNeoPre Sturm und DrangPostPurismoTranscendentalismUkrainian schoolUltraWallenrodism Themes Blue flowerBritish MarineGesamtkunstwerkGothic fictionHero ByronicRomanticHistorical fictionMal du siècleMedievalismNoble savageNostalgiaOssianPantheismRhineRomantic geniusWanderlustWeltschmerzWhite Mountain art Writers Brazil AbreuAlencarAlvesAssisAzevedoBarretoDiasGuimarãesMacedoMagalhãesReisTaunayVarela France BaudelaireBertrandChateaubriandDumasGautierHugoLamartineMériméeMussetNervalNodierStaël Germany A. v. 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Color: 1862
Price: 99.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1860
Price: 99.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1870
Price: 99.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1875
Price: 29.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1876
Price: 29.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1878
Price: 29.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1882
Price: 59.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1859
Price: 149.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1838
Price: 199.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1843
Price: 199.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1861
Price: 99.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1850
Price: 149.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1873 Holed
Price: 14.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1877 Holed
Price: 14.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
Color: 1875 Holed
Price: 14.99 GBP
Available Quantity: 1
Quantity Sold: 0
